164 PHYSIOLOGY CHAP. 



end-vowel i, the bass to the end-vowel u. Finally, the clearness 

 and purity of vowel-formation varies considerably in different 

 languages. It is generally admitted that the sung or spoken 

 vowels are purest in the Italian tongue, and least so in English. 

 Italians, moreover, prefer the fundamental vowel sounds a, i, u, 

 which lie at the extremes of the natural system ; they also admit 

 the middle vowels <2 and 6, b and 6 (open and closed), but reject 

 all other intermediate vowels. The English, on the other hand, 

 not only prefer these, but have further developed a whole series 

 of vowels characterised by imperfect formation, which makes 

 them very difficult to recognise and classify. 



IX. 1 It is difficult to draw up any rational classification of 

 consonants. The most satisfactory would be based on their 

 objective, physical nature, but we have no means for the physical 

 analysis of elementary consonant sounds, such as enables us to 

 determine the physical nature of musical tones. Hermann found 

 himself at a loss after some introductory experiments. We 

 can only fall back on the physiological classification, which 

 is founded on the mode of producing the consonant sounds and 

 their subjective acoustic character. 



Hermann made a primary division of consonants into two 

 groups, voiced and voiceless, according as the sounds formed are 

 accompanied by laryngeal tones or not. Voiced consonants are 

 much more numerous than voiceless consonants; they are sub- 

 divided into semivowels, or liquids (which can function either as 

 consonants or vowels, and can be pronounced alone, independent 

 of other vowel sounds), and sounding consonants. 



It is indispensable to the perfect formation of vowel sounds 

 that the pharyngeal cavity should be closed off from the nasal 

 fossae. When this does not take place, the quality of the vowels 

 alters and they become nasal, since the expiratory current passes 

 through the nose as well as the mouth. On closing the nostrils 

 the nasal character is intensified and may be more prolonged. 

 This nasal quality characterises the French language, but is also 

 present in Italian, Spanish, and all other languages. 



The nasal vowels an, en, ^n represent the transition between 

 the vowels and the liquids or semivowels. 



The semivowels are m, n, ng, I, and r. They have the 

 character of vowels because they are always uttered with the 

 voice, i.e. they are accompanied by vibrations of the glottis 

 (except when whispered), and sometimes carry the accent, when 

 they function as pure vowels. They approximate to consonants 

 because they are pronounced with the mouth partly or entirely 

 closed, and in the majority of cases the accent does not fall on 

 them, so that they mostly play the part of consonants. 



1 This section has been considerably abridged from the Italian text, which 

 contains more detail than is required by the physiological student. ED. 



