44 Chapter III. 



to our faces. Thus the very facts, from which a super- 

 ficial observer infers a mental power of abstraction in 

 animals, not only turn out to be pseudo-arguments in 

 favor of animal intelligence, but can be turned into 

 effective arguments against it. 



In the same manner as Haacke's "mentally general- 

 izing" Makis, numerous other instances which have 

 been advanced by modern animal psychologists such as 

 Darwin, Brehm, Perty, Romanes, and are supposed to 

 furnish convincing evidence of the existence of intelli- 

 gence and spiritual faculties in animals, could be sub- 

 jected to a critical analysis. We would constantly meet 

 with the same result: If combinations of sense repre- 

 sentations are deliberately taken for "mental generaliza- 

 tions," then, of course, it is very easy to talk of the 

 "intelligence" and "spiritual faculties" of animals. But 

 these terms are empty words. Any reasoning naturalist 

 will readily concede that we have not built our com- 

 parative psychological discussion upon the phrases of 

 pseudo-psychology, but upon an unprejudiced analysis 

 of the relative psychological concepts. And upon this 

 foundation we shall now have to examine : Do animals 

 possess intelligence as well as instinct? Do they pos- 

 sess beyond and above their sensitive, also spiritual fac- 

 ulties ? 



