48 Germany. 



The consumption of fuel wood seems to have been 

 enormous, for we find record of 200 cords used by one 

 family in a year and of 1,200 cords or more used by the 

 Court at Weimar during the same time. 



The substitution of turf and coal for firewood was 

 ordered in 1697 and 1777 respectively, but only since 

 1780 did coal come in as a surrogate. Tanbark peel- 

 ing was also forbidden and only the bark of trees soon 

 to be felled or of stocks was to be used. For cooperage 

 only the top-dry oak was to be used ; for cofiins only soft- 

 wood, or according to Joseph II of Austria, no wood, 

 but black cloth was to be used. 



Especially the use of oak was restricted, even as early 

 as 1662, in some parts of the country. 



For regulating the practice in the forest the restric- 

 tions took often only the general form of forbidding 

 devastation, without specifying what that meant. 



Then, besides the diameter limit and the regulation of 

 pasture to protect young growths, excluding sheep and 

 goats entirely, an attempt was made to secure at least 

 orderly procedure in the fellings. Foresters were to 

 designate what was to be cut even for firewood. Mark- 

 ing irons and hammers were employed for this purpose 

 by the middle of the 15th century (usually two mark- 

 ings, by forester and by inspector to check). 



And this designation by officials extended even into 

 the private forest where finally no felling was allowed 

 without previous permission and designation by a for- 

 ester. 



The use of the litter by the small farmers had grown 

 to excess in these times and it was thought desirable to 

 stop it, but this aid to the poor peasant was so necessary 



