viii THE HUMAN EACES 359 



during the last few decades has the study of these remains of pre- 

 historic civilisation been undertaken, but it has already afforded 

 us various important data enabling us to determine the different 

 stages through which civilisation has passed before reaching its 

 present development. 



Another rich mine of documents enabling us to reconstruct 

 the stage of civilisation at which our forefathers had arrived is 

 afforded by the remains many of them fossilised of articles 

 made by them. Palethnology is that branch of modern science 

 which, taking these records as its basis, reconstructs from them 

 the degree and aspects of these ancient civilisations. The fossil 

 remains of human activity are naturally articles used as tools or 

 instruments enabling the owner to obtain food, such as weapons, 

 agricultural implements, culinary utensils, or articles of personal 

 adornment, made of materials which would not wear out and 

 could be preserved, such as stone, bone, metal, and earthenware. 

 Comparative ethnology, or the study of the customs and culture of 

 people living in our own day on the same level as the primitive 

 races of Europe, using utensils and other articles to all intents 

 and purposes the same, is of the greatest assistance in enabling us 

 to understand these different stages of primitive, prehistoric, or 

 proto-historic civilisation. The study of ontogenetical development, 

 or the different stages of psychical development through which 

 our children pass at different ages, will afford material which is 

 by no means to be despised for the theoretical construction of the 

 various stages of psychic activity which have led up to that at 

 which we have now arrived. 



We also have historical documents, the records which have come 

 down to us since the invention and use of writing. This discovery, 

 however, was made at a comparatively late period, so that the 

 earliest written records reveal a very advanced stage of civilisation, 

 such, for instance, as that of Greece. 



We will glance briefly at the result of these researches, which 

 make it possible to attempt to reconstruct the slow progress of 

 humanity towards our present state of civilisation. 



In order to form a judgment of the different degrees of 

 civilisation we must take into consideration the various ways in 

 which human activity has been displayed, more especially social 

 and individual customs (organisation of the state and family) ; the 

 diet adopted, and the means used for protection against inclement 

 climates and for turning to account the brute forces of nature ; 

 the artistic productions and scientific or philosophic knowledge ; 

 the religious beliefs or superstitions, etc. ; everything in fact 

 appertaining to that practical, intellectual, and moral heritage 

 which constitutes the wealth of nations, and distinguishes man 

 from the rest of the animal world. We may study the origin and 

 development of each of these elements questions to which our 



