396 LITERARY PAPERS 



in verse and made his very own. The ethical life of the Greeks, 

 their Gods, religion, belief in immortality, and thoughts on 

 life and death he brought before us with remarkable clear- 

 ness. 



In the earlier Greek writings, Homer, for example, the 

 notion of Truth is not so exalted as in later Greek writings. 

 Its appli cations are more generally to concrete objects, and 

 Truth is used more in our sense of verity in relation to some 

 particular situation, as when Sarpedon addresses Glaucus, 

 "But now, for a truth ten thousand fates of death press upon 

 us;" or in another passage, "Thine of a truth will shame 

 and disgrace now be, O Menelaus, if the swift dogs tear the 

 faithful companion of illustrious Hercules beneath the walls 

 of the Trojans." Hector interrogates the maids of the palace 

 thus, "I pray you, 'maids, tell me truly whither went white- 

 armed Andromache from the palace?" Him then the active 

 housewife in turn addressed, "Hector, since thou biddest 

 me to tell the truth, she has not gone to any of her husband's 

 sisters but she went to the lofty tower of Ilium." 



Very frequently similar passages occur in the Iliad and 

 other Homeric writings. When the Gerenian Knight says, 

 "Shall I speak falsely or say the truth?" doubtless his hesi- 

 tation arose from fears lest his forebodings should dampen 

 the courage of his companions. Nestor well comprehended 

 the imperfections of our senses and the relativity of Truth 

 depending upon the senses as its source, and the need of 

 cooperation when resorting to such experience. He says, 

 " Truly, my friend, thou hast spoken all these things aright, 

 for when two go together, the one perceives before the other 

 how the advantage may be. But if one being alone should 

 observe anything, his perception is more tardy and his judg- 

 ment weak." 



It was a Greek principle in warfare that stratagem, deceit, 

 and cunning were legitimate means to employ in overcoming 

 an enemy, although treaties with the enemy were concluded 

 and ratified upon oath and were binding. Ulysses is openly 

 addressed as "Jove-sprung son of Laertes, much-scheming 

 Ulysses," "Ulysses of many wiles," "Cunning Ulysses," and 



