ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 



point we can readily conceive of its evolution into effectiveness 

 through more and more complex differentiations of the reflex 

 act, until we have reached its highest manifestations in our own 



consciousness and in that which we assume to exist in the 

 higher animals. If this momentary consciousness whose pres- 

 ence we may assume in reflex processes has any precursor in 

 the simple direct responses of the lower animals, it must lie in 

 a hypothetical sentience inherent in living protoplasm and 

 equally ineffective; beyond this point the question is one for 

 the metaphysician rather than the natural scientist. 



From reflex processes we pass with little difficulty to instinc- 

 tive actions, in fact there is at times some difficulty in drawing a 

 sharp line between these two forms of behavior. The term in- 

 stinct is used pretty loosely both in popular and scientific discus- 

 sions, and different scientists have given rather divergent 

 definitions of it; according to one of the most epitomized defini- 

 tions instinct is compound reflex action, but a little more accurate 

 conception of it may be obtained by considering its characteristics 

 more fully. Behavior is said to be instinctive which consists 

 of complex, coordinated actions performed by the animal without 

 any previous experience and independent of instruction ; per- 

 formed in essentially the same manner by all the individuals of 

 the same sex and race ; and tending towards the well-being and 

 preservation of the individual or the race, -- that is to say, having 

 some ultimately utilitarian end of which the individual may be, 

 and probably usually is, ignorant. From this definition we see 

 that an act may not be wholly instinctive but once, since after 

 its first performance the animal has had experience, which may 

 modify its subsequent acts, and in fact instinct is very early 

 modified by experience. We note, too, that instinct is directed 

 towards two ends, either the well-being of the individual or of 

 the race, the former relating to the nutrition, development, and 

 protection of the animal, the latter to reproduction and such al- 

 lied phenomena as nest-building, care of the young, and social 

 organization. Instincts, then, from the nature of our definition 

 must be conceived to be inherited characteristics. 



The chick walks about shortly after emerging from the shell ; 

 the coordination of muscular movements is instinctive. It pecks 

 at first at anything which attracts its attention ; the pecking is 



