STUDIES IN ANIMAL LIFE. 117 



from a common osseous element. "We know that 

 the jaws are identical with arms and legs both be- 

 ing divergent modifications of a common osseous 

 structure. We know that the arm of a man is 

 identical with the fin of a whale or the wing of a 

 bird. The differences here in form, size, and func- 

 tion are much greater than the differences which 

 establish orders and classes in the animal series. 

 Unless animal forms were modifications of some 

 common type, it would be difficult to explain their 

 remarkable affinities. As Mr. Darwin says, " It is 

 a truly wonderful fact the wonder of which we 

 are apt to overlook from familiarity that all ani- 

 mals and all plants throughout all time and space 

 should be related to each other in group subordi- 

 nate to group, in the manner which we every where 

 behold, namely, varieties of the same species most 

 closely related together, species of the same genus 

 less closely and unequally related together, forming 

 sections and sub-genera, species of distinct genera 

 much less closely related, and genera related in dif- 

 ferent degrees, forming sub-families, families, orders, 

 sub-classes, and classes. The several subordinate 

 groups in any class can not be ranked in a single 

 file, but seem rather to be clustered round points, 

 and these round other points, and so on in almost 

 endless circles. On the view that each species has 

 been independently created, I can see no explana- 

 tion of this great fact in the classification of all or- 

 ganic beings ; but, to the best of my judgment, it is 



