ETHOLOGY. 601 



characters of nations, classes, or descriptions of persons, which is univer- 

 sally acknowledged as indisputable.* 



And finally, if we could even obtain by way of experiment a much more 

 satisfactory assurance of these generalizations than is really possible, they 

 would still be only empirical laws. They would show, indeed, that there 

 was some connection between the type of chai'acter formed and the cir- 

 cumstances existing in the case ; but not what the precise connection was, 

 nor to which of the peculiarities of those circumstances the effect was real- 

 ly owing. They could only, therefore, be received as results of causation, 

 requiring to be resolved into the general laws of the causes : until the de- 

 termination of which, we could not judge within what limits the derivative 

 laws might serve as presumptions in cases yet unknown, or even be de- 

 pended on as permanent in the very cases from which they were collected. 

 The French people had, or were supposed to have, a certain national char- 

 acter ; but they drive out their royal family and aristocracy, alter their in- 

 stitutions, pass through a series of extraordinary events for the greater 

 part of a century, and at the end of that time their character is found to 

 have undergone important changes. A long list of mental and moral dif- 

 ferences are observed, or supposed to exist between men and women ; but 

 at some future and, it may be hoped, not distant period, equal freedom 

 and an equally independent social position come to be possessed by both, 

 and their differences of character are either removed or totally altered. 



But if the differences which we think we observe between French and 

 English, or between men and women, can be connected with more general 

 laws ; if they be such as might be expected to be produced by the differ- 

 ences of government, former customs, and physical peculiarities in the two 

 nations, and by the diversities of education, occupations, personal inde- 

 pendence, and social privileges, and whatever original differences there 

 may be in bodily strength and nervous sensibility between the two sexes ; 

 then, indeed, tlie coincidence of the two kinds of evidence justifies us in 

 believing that we have both reasoned rightly and observed rightly. Our 

 observation, though not sufficient as proof, is ample as verification. And 

 having ascertained not only the empirical laws, but the causes, of the pe- 

 culiarities, we need be under no difficulty in judging how far they may be 

 expected to be permanent, or by what circumstances they would be modi- 

 fied or destroyed. 



§ 4. Since then it is impossible to obtain really accurate propositions 



*,The most favorable cases for making such approximate generalizations are what may be 

 termed collective instances ; where we are fortunately enabled to see the whole class respect- 

 ing which we are inquiring in action at once, and, from the qualities displayed by the col- 

 lective body, are able to judge what must be the qualities of the majority of the individuals 

 composing it. Thus the character of a nation is shown in its acts as a nation ; not so much 

 in the acts of its government, for those are much influenced by other causes ; but in the cur- 

 rent popular maxims, and other marks of the general direction of public opinion ; in the char- 

 acter of the persons or writings that are held in permanent esteem or admiration ; in laws and 

 institutions, so far as they are the work of the nation itself, or are acknowledged and support- 

 ed by it ; and so forth. But even here there is a large margin of doubt and uncertainty. 

 These things are liable to be influenced by many circumstances ; they are partially detennined 

 by the distinctive qualities of that nation or body of persons, but partlj'^ also by external causes 

 which would influence any other body of persons in the same manner. In order, therefore, 

 to make the experiment really complete, we ought to be able to try it without variation upon 

 other nations : to try how Englishmen would act or feel if placed in the same circumstances 

 in which we have supposed Frenchmen to be placed ; to apply, in short, the Method of Dif- 

 ferences as well as that of Agreement, Now these experiments we can not try, nor even ap- 

 proximate to. 



