68G ZOOLOGY skot. 



animals on a frankl}^ evolutionary basis. We owe to him the 

 terms phylogeny and ontogeny, coenogenesis and palingenesis, and 

 the fruitful " gastraea-theory," according to which the gastrula is 

 the ancestral form of all the Metazoa. His classifications take the 

 form of genealogical trees, and he was the first to employ the 

 method of introducing hypothetical ancestral forms, wherever 

 they might be wanted to complete the connection between known 

 groups. He may be said, in fact, to have founded a school of 

 deductive zoology, the phylogenetic sjieculations of which are 

 often as ingenious and suggestive as they are transient. The 

 student must, however, bear in mind that Archi-molluscs, Ideal 

 Craniates, and Pro-mammalia are mere figments of the imagina- 

 tion, and have no more real existence than the " Divine Arche- 

 types " of an earlier school of thought. 



One result of the new views on species, very obvious in the 

 writings of both Huxley and Haeckel, was the marked alteration 

 in the position assigned to Man in the animal series. Linnaeus 

 considered ^OMo asa genusof his order Primates, equivalent to Simia, 

 Lemur, &c. ; but Cuvier took the retrograde step of erecting a 

 distinct order, Biniana, to contain Man alone, the Apes and 

 Lemurs forming the order Quadrumaria. Ehrenberg Avent 

 further, and divided the Animal Kingdom into A' at ions, i.e., 

 Mankind, and Animals. Even as late as 1857 Owen, as we have 

 already seen, made a distinct sub-class, Archenccphala, for Man, 

 the remaining Primates being included with the other higher 

 mammalian orders in the sub-class Gyrcnccphala. This view of 

 the isolated position of Man was connected with the theory of his 

 late appearance in time, and the fact of his co-existence with the 

 Mammoth and other extinct Mammals, first proved by Boucher 

 de Perthes in 1836 b}^ the discovery of flint axes 20-30 feet 

 below the present surface, was for many years almost universally 

 denied. But LyelPs Antiquity of Man (1863) placed the 

 geological evidence on a sound footing, and the same was done for 

 the morphological evidence by Huxley, who, in his Mans Place in 

 Nature (1863), summed up the position by the statement, now 

 universally conceded, " that the structural differences which 

 separate Man from the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee are not so 

 great as those which separate the Gorilla from the lower Apes." 

 Finally, Darwin, in his Descent of Man (1871), discussed the 

 question from every point of view, and concluded that " Man still 

 bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin." 



It was also during the third quarter of last century that 

 the old doctrine of Abiogenesis or Spontaneous Generation, first 

 assaulted by Redi, but maintained by many naturalists from 

 Aristotle to Haeckel, was finally disposed of The accurate 

 methods of Louis Pasteur, Lord Lister, John Tyndall, and 

 others, proved conclusively that the Bacteria, Monads, and other 



