FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION 365 



these unfavorable conditions have come to prevail, the tree seeds find 

 it very hard to germinate and soon there is no reproduction taking 

 place. 



The leaves and tender branches of the young growth in the 

 woodlot are eagerly browsed by the animals. Some species of trees 

 are less liable to browsing than others. Cattle have been noticed 

 standing in good, fresh clover, greedily devouring the leaves from 

 limbs of Sugar Maple which were thrown into me pasture. Evi- 

 dently they enjoyed a change in diet. 



The trampling of the soil, the destruction of young growth, 

 which should protect the soil from sun and wind, and the formation 

 of an impervious sod, all aid in lessening the vigor of growth of the 

 standing, full grown trees. In this case the injurious effects are 

 scarcely noticeable to the common observer owing to his lack of 

 knowledge as to what healthy tree growth actually means. The an- 

 nual amount of wood production is far below what it should be when 

 the soil conditions are in an abnormal state from grazing. 



Many woodlots contain trees that have not reached maturity, 

 but whose tops are dying. Such trees are spoken of as being stag- 

 headed. Stag-headedness is caused by lack of nourishment and 

 moisture in the soil, a result of grazing. 



Weed Trees. Many woodlots contain a large percentage of 

 weed trees or inferior species. Weed trees such as Ironwood, Haw- 

 thorn, and Blue Beech have gradually taken possesion as an under- 

 growth. Everything seems to favor the development of these species. 

 In cutting operations these trees are seldom disturbed. The stock 

 in grazing prefer the leaves and branches of the better species, thus 

 giving these weed trees another advantage. The seedlings of the 

 Ironwood and Blue Beech seem very hardy and vigorous and can 

 stand a great amount of shade, so that they get an early start in the 

 struggle for possession of the soil. When once the Ironwood has 

 obtained a footing its dense foliage so shades the ground that better 

 species cannot develop beneath it. In many woodlots from seventy- 

 five to eighty per cent of the trees under three inches are made up of 

 Ironwood. 



The question of the inferiority of a species is relative and de- 

 pends on local conditions. Inferior species, as Poplars and Slippery 

 or Red Elm, are often growing on soils which are capable of pro- 

 ducing much better species. Then in some cases the woodlot has 

 gradually become filled with Sugar Maple when it might be wise to 

 introduce other species. 



Defective and Overmature Trees. The average woodlot con- 

 tains many defective and overmature trees. The defective trees are 

 of various descriptions. Trees with old fire scars, trees injured while 

 young by the felling of neighboring trees, trees wantonly scarred 

 by the careless blow of an axe, trees broken and deformed by wind 

 or snow, are all forms which should gradually be removed. Over- 

 mature trees frequently show a tendency to become stag-headed and 

 if left standing gradually deteriorate in value. Such trees are a 



