FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION 427 



The relative merits of maple and hickory for axle manufac- 

 ture have been a matter of contention for years. Both woods are 

 extensively employed, though maple finds greater use in the north- 

 ern trade, while the southern trade prefers hickory. Endeavors to 

 substitute steel for wood in axle construction have met with dis- 

 favor, since steel lacks the resilience of wood; the steel axle is de- 

 scribed as "dead," the wood axle as "live." For bolsters, longleaf 

 pine has been put upon the market as a substitute for oak, and has 

 given satisfaction, though a coniferous wood as a rule will not hold 

 the standards in place as well as a hardwood, because the fibers crush 

 more easily. 



White oak and white ash were used formerly for poles, but the 

 increase in price of ash has led to the general use of oak, supple- 

 mented to some extent by Douglas fir and longleaf pine. In gen- 

 eral the white and red oaks are now used indiscriminately and lit- 

 tle choice is made between the two, except in special orders for 

 select stock. The excessive checking, coupled with the high price 

 of white oak, has led to the substitution of willow oak, red oak, and 

 black and yellow birch for hubs. Birch hubs give the best results 

 when they are shipped to the manufacturer in winter. Put into the 

 warehouse while frozen, they can dry out gradually during cold 

 weather, so that by the time they are sent to the dry house they are 

 already comparatively dry, and molding has been prevented. 



Implement manufacture permits the use of many kinds of 

 wood. There are implements in which almost any kind of soft- 

 wood can be used for panel work and any kind of hardwood for 

 sill or frame work ; so longleaf pine has, to a great extent, replaced 

 oak in implement manufacture. Red gum and cottonwood are 

 largely used for panels ; the former is also used in combination with 

 western spruce, pine, or fir, for narrow strip work, in places where 

 it is liable to warp. In flaring grain tanks the side boards may be 

 made of Douglas fir, western spruce, pine, red gum, or western 

 hemlock, and the beds of longleaf pine, western hemlock, or Doug- 

 las fir. In these tanks it is possible to use a wood which has some 

 tendency to warp, as the four or six knees which support the flaring 

 sides hold them in place. 



In wheat and corn drills and similar implements ash, maple, 

 or oak is generally used for framework. Cottonwood, gum, poplar, 

 Douglas fir, spruce, and western pine are used for panel work. Ash, 

 rock elm, and oak are used for spokes and rims, in combination 

 with a metal hub. For implement poles longleaf pine and Douglas 

 fir have given most satisfaction. Throughout the vehicle and im- 

 plement industries there is a marked and increasing tendency to 

 use western coniferous woods. 



Farm Carpentry Timber. In carpentry we may distinguish 

 between the covered or rough portions, such as the framework of a 

 house, including sills, studdings, plates, joists, rafters, sheathing, 

 and roof boards, and the exposed parts, such as the floors, doors, 

 window frames, sash, blinds, and any stationary furniture, as store 

 and office fixtures. For the former the wood must be abundant, in 



