FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 305 



consideration, they gradually more and more re- 

 strict free management. Prohibition of absolute 

 clearing, or at least only with the permission of 

 the government ; the command to reforest cleared 

 and waste places ; to foster the young growth ; 

 limiting the quality of timber to be felled ; the pre- 

 vention of devastation by prohibiting the pastur- 

 ing of cattle in the young growth, rules in regard 

 to the removal of the forest litter, of pitch gather- 

 ing, etc., were among these prescriptions, with 

 many others, such as prescribing the manner 

 and time of felling, the division into regular fell- 

 ing lots, determination as to what is to be cut as 

 firewood and what as building timber. Then, 

 with the increasing fear of a reduction in sup- 

 plies, followed prohibitions against exportation, 

 against sale of woodlands to foreigners, against 

 speculation in timber by providing schedules of 

 prices, and from time to time entire exclusion 

 from sale of some valuable species. Even the 

 consumer was restricted and controlled in the 

 manner of using wood. 



In mediaeval times, besides private forests of the 

 king and lords, only the communal forest (all- 

 mende) was known, and small holdings of farmers 

 were comparatively rare until the end of the 

 middle ages. 



The Thirty-years War and the following troub- 

 lous times gave rise not only to extended forest 

 devastation, but also to many changes in owner- 



