204 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap. 



toned, or agreeable. Jaak is bad in the sense of a 

 bad crop or an unfortunate occurrence, or a sore 

 foot, i.e. it conveys no moral flavour. Morally bad 

 is expressed by sala ; this is used in the same sense 

 in Malay and may well be a recently-adopted word. 

 In general the language seems to be very poor in 

 terms expressive of disapproval, adverse judgments 

 being generally expressed by putting nusi, the 

 negative or primitive particle, before the correspond- 

 ing word of positive import ; thus a cowardly act or 

 man would be denounced as nusi makang. 



We think it is true to say that, although they thus 

 distinguish the principal qualities of character and 

 conduct with appropriate adjectival terms, they have 

 no substantival terms for the virtues and vices, and 

 that they have not fully accomplished the processes 

 of abstraction implied by the appropriate use of such 

 highly abstract substantives. 



As regards the influence of their religious beliefs 

 on the moral conduct of the Kayans, we have seen 

 that the fear of the toh serves as a constant 

 check on the breach of customs, which customs are 

 in the main salutary and essential for the mainte- 

 nance of social order ; this fear does at the least 

 serve to develop in the people the power of self- 

 control and the habit of deliberation before action. 

 The part which the major spirits or gods are 

 supposed to play in bringing or fending off the 

 major calamities remains extremely vague and in- 

 capable of definition ; in the main, faithful observa- 

 tion of the omens, of rites, and of custom generally, 

 seems to secure the favour of the gods, and in some 

 way their protection ; and thus the gods make for 

 morality. Except in regard to that part of conduct 

 which is accurately prescribed by custom and tradi- 

 tion, their influence seems to be negligible, and the 

 high standard of the Kayans in neighbourliness, in 

 mutual help and consideration, in honesty and for- 



