22 INTRODUCTION. 



that general terms are mere words, or abstractions. His opinion was 

 condemned at Soissons, in 1092 ; but revived, about 1340, by Wm. 

 Occam (Ocham or Ockham) ; who maintained the doctrine of the 

 Nominalists, in opposition to his preceptor Dun Scotus : and this doc- 

 trine ultimately prevailed. It was left for Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, 

 Gassendi, Descartes, Leibnitz, Bayle, Locke, and Newton, to remove 

 the rubbish with which the schoolmen had encumbered philosophy, 

 and to become the great modern pioneers in the discovery of physical 

 and intellectual truth. 



Modern Learned Societies. 



The ancient schools of philosophy, have been superseded, in mo- 

 dern times, by associations designed for the .cultivation of knowledge ; 

 under the names of Academies, Institutes, or Societies. The first of 

 this kind, was established by the emperor Charlemagne, at the sug- 

 gestion of Alcuin, his preceptor. It was composed chiefly of the 

 nobles of his court ; the emperor himself presiding : but after his 

 death it soon fell to decay. Numerous Academies were founded in 

 Italy, by the Greek scholars driven from Constantinople, on its cap- 

 ture by the Turks, in 1453. The Academia Secretorum Naturae, 

 instituted at Naples in 1560, for developing the secrets of nature, was 

 suppressed by the papal authority, through jealousy of its influence. 

 The Academia della Crusca, or Bran Academy, founded at Florence 

 in 1582, for sifting or purifying the Italian language, is now incorpo- 

 rated in the Royal Florentine Academy. And the Academia degF In- 

 quiet i, or Academy of the restless, founded by Manfred i, at Bologna, 

 in 1690, is now united with the Bononian Institute; which pos- 

 sesses a superior library, and collection of curiosities. There are also 

 Royal Academies at Naples, and Turin. 



In France, the French Academy was founded by Cardinal Riche- 

 lieu, in 1635, chiefly for the improvement of the French language: 

 and the Royal Academy of Sciences, was founded by Colbert, in 

 1666 ; since which time it has published 139 volumes of its transac- 

 tions. These, and other institutions, were united, in 1795, at the 

 suggestion of Condorcet, to form the National Institute. It was 

 more completely organized by Napoleon, in 1806; ever since which 

 time, it has been patronised by the French government ; receiving 

 therefrom an annual appropriation. On the restoration of the Bour- 

 bons, in 1816, it was reorganized, with some slight changes ; and it 

 now consists of the four following Academies; 1. The French 

 Academy, devoted to the French language and literature ; 2. The 

 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, devoted chiefly to anti- 

 quities ; 3. The Academy of Physical and Mathematical Sciences ; 

 and 4. the Academy of the Fine Arts. 



In Germany, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum, was founded 

 by Bausch, in 1652, and patronized by the Emperor Leopold, in 

 1687. It is devoted more particularly to the natural and medical 

 sciences ; and is located at Vienna. The Royal Academy of Sciences 

 and ftelles Lettres, at Berlin, was founded in 1700, by Frederick I. ; 

 Leibnitz being its first president. It is subdivided into classes; pro- 

 vided with a full cabinet and library ; and has acquired a high repu- 



