INTERNATIONAL LAW. 107 



courtesy and good will ; always subject to the restrictions necessary 

 for its own safety. 



Every nation is bound to respect the ambassador or public minis- 

 ter of another nation, so long as the laws of nations are respected by 

 him. As the representative of his nation, his person is inviolate ; 

 nor is he subject to the laws of the nation receiving him. He may 

 be ordered away, or, if necessary, expelled ; but if practicable, com- 

 plaint should first be made to his own government, that he may be 

 recalled. A government may, at its discretion, refuse to receive an 

 ambassador; but then it should speedily explain to the government 

 sending him, the reason for this refusal. Treaties made by minis- 

 ters, are not understood to be binding, until ratified by their respective 

 governments; unless made by ministers plenipotentiary, clothed 

 with full and irrevocable powers. If there be a dispute concerning 

 the rightful government of a foreign nation, the government de facto, 

 or actual government, is the one usually recognised. 



As every nation is bound to protect its own citizens, in the enjoy- 

 ment of their rights, an injury to a single one of them, if reparation 

 be refused, may be deemed a cause for war ; though war may not, 

 even then, be advisable. In such cases, the injured citizen is doubt- 

 less entitled to reparation from his own government. Disputes 

 between nations, may be settled by mediation, by conference, or by 

 arbitration : and not until all attempts to obtain justice by these 

 means have failed, can there be just cause for war. 



2. The Laws of Nations in War, presuppose that war is 

 undertaken only in order to obtain justice, when all other means 

 have failed. War is the ultima ratio, or last resort, of nations who 

 acknowledge no earthly superior, but appeal to the God of battles in 

 defence of their existence, liberty, or other dearest rights. Some- 

 times recourse is had to a limited warfare ; as by retaliation, reprisals, 

 blockades, or embargoes, to extort or compel redress. A blockade, 

 is an interception of all communication with a place, by the fleets or 

 armies of a hostile power : and an embargo, is an order of the 

 government detaining the vessels of another nation, or interdicting all 

 trade therewith, as a contingent means of redress or coercion. War is 

 sometimes commenced, as it was among the Greeks and Romans, by 

 a formal declaration of hostilities ; but the failure of negotiations, and 

 the withdrawal of ministers, is generally deemed a sufficient warning 

 to the opposite party. 



The effect of War is to put all the citizens of each nation, politi- 

 cally speaking, in a hostile position towards those of the other ; sus- 

 pending, but not cancelling their respective claims and obligations. 

 It is just that foreigners in each country should have time to with- 

 draw themselves and their property therefrom ; but the law of reci- 

 procity generally prevails ; and if imprisonment or confiscation 

 follow, they have a just claim on their own country for the damage. 

 It is just, also, that actual hostilities should be restricted to those per- 

 sons who are commissioned in the public service of the belligerent 

 states ; and that they should be permitted to act offensively only 

 against armed forces and public property ; but not against peaceable 

 -itizens. Captured goods are often bestowed on the captors; but 



