EUROPEAN. 219 



Gregory VII. ; which became the cause of much subsequent conten- 

 tion with the German emperors. Gregory VII. first decreed the 

 celibacy of the clergy ; in order to bind them more closely to the 

 hierarchal service. 



The papal power was greatly increased by the Crusades^ or wars 

 of the Cross, against the Mohamedans, for the recovery of Jerusa- 

 lem. The first was commenced in 1096, under Peter the Hermit, a 

 monk patronized by pope Urban II. ; and three years after, Jerusa- 

 lem was taken by Godfrey of Bouillon, and his associates. In 

 1147, a second Crusade was got up by St. Barnard, and Pope Eu- 

 gene III., to sustain the Christians in the East ; in which Louis VII. 

 of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, failed of success. The 

 third Crusade was begun in 1188, by Richard I. of England, Philip 

 Augustus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, stimu- 

 lated by Pope Clement III., to recover Jerusalem, which the Turks 

 had retaken, ten years before. Richard defeated Saladin and the 

 Turks at Ascalon, in 1192; but ended this crusade by a truce with 

 them soon after. The fourth Crusade, began in 1202, under 

 Baldwin, count of Flanders, who went no farther than Constantino- 

 ple: and the fifth and last Crusade, made in 1248, by St. Louis 

 (Lewis IX.) of France, ended with his capture, and ransom, in 

 Egypt, soon after. 



In 1177, Pope Alexander III., compelled the emperor Frederick 

 of Germany to hold his stirrup, and kiss his foot : and in 1198, Pope 

 Innocent III., subjected Rome itself to the temporal power of the 

 papal chair. Under him, the Inquisition was founded, in 1204, by 

 the agency of Dominic de Guzman ; being first aimed against the 

 Reformers in France ; and next against the Jews in Spain. Pope 

 Boniface VIII., was imprisoned, in 1303, by Philip the Fair of 

 France ; and from 1308 to 1377, the popes resided at Avignon. In 

 1378, two popes were chosen at the same time ; Clement VII., by 

 the French ; and Urban VI., by the Italians. This division is called 

 the great schism of the west. The council of Constance, convoked 

 in 1414, by the German emperor, Sigismund, deposed John XXII., 

 and proclaimed itself superior to the pope. 



The Reformation, begun by Luther in 1517, (page 154), and 

 which neither the power nor the policy of Leo X. could suppress, 

 has liberated the half of Christendom from ecclesiastical usurpation. 

 To counteract this, the order of Jesuits was founded, in 15,36, by 

 Loyola, under Pope Paul III. ; (p. 154); its members promising impli- 

 cit obedience to the papal power; and their professed object being the 

 conversion of heretics and the heathen. Their machinations led to 

 their suppression, in the last century, by most of the European 

 sovereigns : but not to their extinction. Pope Sixtus V., who died 

 in 1590, has been called the last Roman pontiff that kings had reason 

 to fear. Pope Pius VII., was forced, in 1801, to buy his personal 

 freedom of Bonaparte ; and owed his restoration, in 1814, at least in 

 part, to the protestant states of England and Prussia. In restoring 

 the Jesuits, and opposing the dissemination of the Bible, he only 

 followed the maxim of his predecessors, "never to give up the 

 slightest claims, but to wait for opportunities." 



