494 MACHETECHNICS. 



ditch ; and by the portcullis, which was a heavy grating, made to 

 slide in vertical grooves, or turn on hinges at the top, serving, when 

 closed, as a second gate. The tops of the walls were constructed 

 with battlements, or indentations ; to enable those above to throw 

 down stones, and other missiles, upon the assailants at the foot ; and, 

 in Italy, machicoulis, or projecting scaffolds, were constructed, with 

 holes through the flooring, for the same purpose. In the interior of 

 the castle was the donjon, or keep ; which was made very strong, 

 and served as a citadel, or last resort for the besieged, in case they 

 were driven from the outer walls. 



The modern system of fortification, commenced with the enlarge- 

 ment of the flanking towers, until they occupied extensive spaces, 

 and took the name of bastions. This change is attributed by some 

 writers to Ziska, the Hussite, at Mount Tabor, in Bohemia, in 1419 ; 

 and by others, to Achmet Pacha, at Otranto, in 1480 : but it seems 

 more probable, that the first regular bastions were constructed by 

 San-Micheli, at Verona, in Italy, in 1525. The covert-way, outside 

 of the ditch, was invented by Tartaglia, of Italy, in 1554. Places 

 of arms, at the angles of the ditch, on the exterior, were first con- 

 structed by Cataneo, about 1574 ; and enlarged, to form the demi- 

 lune, about 1585. Gunpowder was first tried in mines, at the castle 

 of Sarezanella, in 1487 : but its first successful application was at 

 the castle De I'GEuf, (Naples), in 1503, by Navarre, a Spanish engi- 

 neer. Errard Bar-le-Duc wrote the first French work on Fortifica- 

 tion, in 1594. His system was improved by Pagan ; and still farther 

 by Vauban, who corrected the proportions of all its parts. Vauban 

 invented ricochet firing, first practised at Maestrict, in 1673, or at 

 Philipsburg, in 1688; and which made an essential change in the 

 modes of attack and defence. The later improvements of Carnot, 

 Cormontaigne, and others, we have no room here to describe. 



We proceed to give some farther ideas of Fortification, under the 

 heads of Field Fortification ; Permanent Fortification ; and the At- 

 tack and Defence of Places. 



1. Field Fortifications, are works thrown up for the immediate 

 use of an army during a campaign; and which, after having served 

 their purpose, are abandoned to decay. The name of intrenchments, 

 is often applied to them, from their being usually constructed by dig- 

 ging a trench, or ditch, and throwing up the earth on the inner side, 

 to form a parapet, or breastwork. (Plate XL, Fig. 1). The sides 

 of the ditch and parapet are made sloping, in order that they may not 

 crumble down so easily. The interior slope of the ditch, is called 

 the scarp; and the exterior, the counterscarp. The parapet is made 

 3 feet thick, for defence against musketry ; and at least 8 feet thick, 

 to resist cannon ; and it has three slopes ; the superior, inclining 

 gently outwards ; the exterior, which is made steeper, and separated 

 from the ditch by a narrow step, or berme ; and the interior slope, or 

 breast-height, behind which the men stand, and over which they fire 

 upon the assailants. The crest of the breast-height, is technically 

 called the covering line : and when the parapet is high, the men who 

 fire over it, stand upon a banquette, or step of earth, which termi- 

 nates the parapet on the interior. The interior space, immediately 



