BOOK IX. 405 



almost as much as seven Roman moduli**, the first smelter — for there are 

 three — adds three cartloads of lead slags, one cartload of schist, one fifth of 

 a centumpondium of stones which easily fuse in the fire, besides a small 

 quantity of concentrates collected from copper slag and accretions, aJl of 

 which he smelts for the space of twelve hours, and from which he makes six 

 centumpondia of primary cakes and one-half of a centumpondium of alloy. 

 One half of the latter consists of copper and silver, and it settles to the bottom 

 of the forehearth. In every centumpondium of the cakes there is half a libra 

 of silver and sometimes half an uncia besides ; in the half of a centumpondium 



Pliny is a good deal confused over the copper alloys, failing to recognise aurichakum 

 as the same product as that made by mixing cadmia and molten copper. Further, there is 

 always the difficulty in translation arising from the fact that the Latin aes was indiscriminately 

 copper, brass, and bronze. He does not, except in one instance (xxxiv., 2), directly describe 

 the mixture of cadmia and copper. " Next to Livian (copper) this kind {corduban, from 

 " Spain) most readily absorbs cadmia, and becomes almost as excellent as aurichakum for 

 " making sesterces." As to bronze, there is no very definite statement ; but the argentatium 

 given in the quotation above from xxxiv, 20, is stated in xxxiv, 48, to be a mixture of 

 tin and lead. The Romans carried on most extensive copper mining in various parts of their 

 empire ; these activities extended from Egypt through Cyprus, Central Europe, the Spanish 

 Peninsula, and Britain. The activity of such works is abundantly evidenced in the mines, but 

 very little remains upon the surface to indicate the equipment ; thus, while mining methods 

 are clear enough, the metallurgy receives little help from these sources. At Rio Tinto there 

 still remain enormous slag heaps from the Romans, and the Phoenician miners before them. 

 Professor W. A. Carlyle informs us that the ore worked must have been almost exclusively 

 sulphides, as only negligible quantities of carbonates exist in the deposits ; they probably 

 mixed basic and siliceous ores. There is some evidence of roasting, and the slags run from 

 .2 to .6%. They must have run down mattes, but as to how they ultimately arrived at 

 metaUic copper there is no evidence to show. 



The special processes for separating other metals from copper by liquation and matting, 

 or of refining by poling, etc., are none of them clearly indicated in records or remains until 

 we reach the 12th century. Here we find very adequate descriptions of copper smelting and 

 refining by the Monk Theophilus (see Appendix B). We reproduce two paragraphs of interest 

 from Hendrie's excellent translation (p. 305 and 313) : " Copper is engendered in the earth. 

 " When a vein of which is found, it is acquired with the greatest labour by digging and break- 

 " ing. It is a stone of a green colour and most hard, and naturally mixed with lead. This 

 " stone, dug up in abundance, is placed upon a pile and burned after the manner of chalk, 

 " nor does it change colour, but yet loses its hardness, so that it can be broken up. Then, 

 " being bruised small, it is placed in the furnace ; coals and the bellows being applied, it is 

 " incessantly forged by day and night. This should be done carefully and with caution ; 

 " that is, at first coals are placed in, then small pieces of stone are distributed over them, 

 " and again coals, and then stone anew, and it is thus arranged until it is sufficient for the 

 " size of the furnace. And when the stone has commenced to liquefy, the lead flows out 

 " through some small cavities, and the copper remains within. (313) Of the purification of cop- 

 " per. Take an iron dish of the size you wish, and hne it inside and out with clay strongly 

 " beaten and mixed, and it is carefully dried. Then place it before a forge upon the coals, 

 " so that when the bellows act upon it the wind may issue partly within and partly above it, 

 " and not below it. And very small coals being placed round it, place copper in it equally, 

 " and add over it a heap of coals. When, by blowing a long time, this has become melted, 

 " uncover it and cast immediately fine ashes of coals over it, and stir it with a thin and dry 

 " piece of wood as if mixing it, and you will directly see the burnt lead adhere to these ashes 

 " like a glue. Which being cast out again superpose coals, and blowing for a long time, as 

 " at first, again uncover it, and then do as you did before. You do this until at length, by 

 " cooking it, you can withdraw the lead entirely. Then pour it over the mould which you have 

 " prepared for this, and you will thus prove if it be pure. Hold it with pincers, glowing as it 

 " is, before it has become cold, and strike it with a large hammer strongly over the anvil, and 

 "if it be broken or split you must liquefy it anew as before." 



The next writer of importance was Biringuccio, who was contemporaneous with 

 Agricola, but whose book precedes De Re Metallica by 15 years. That author (iii, 2) is 

 the first to describe particularly the furnace used in Saxony and the roasting prior to smelting, 

 and the first to mention fluxes in detail. He, however, describes nothing of matte smelting ; 

 in copper refining he gives the whole process of poling, but omits the pole. It is not until 

 we reach De Re Metallica that we find adequate descriptions of the copper minerals, 

 roasting, matte smelting, liquation, and refining, with a wealth of detail which ehminates 

 the necessity for a large amount of conjecture regarding technical methods of the time. 



**The Roman modius [modulus ?) held about 550 cubic inches, the English peck holding 

 535 cubic inches. Then, perhaps, his seven moduli would be roughly, i bushel 3 pecks, and 18 

 vessels full would be about 31 bushels — say, roughly, 5,400 lbs. of ore. 



