EUROPEAN TIMBER 61 



under a fine of 100s. A good deal of aspen comes from 

 Russia and is used for " venesta " panelling, and a large 

 quantity is made into matches in Sweden. 



Weight of poplar about 26 to 33 Ibs. per cubic foot. 



English Elm (Uinuts campcstris), Fig. 14, a tree of 70 or 80 

 ft. in height and sometimes 5 ft. in diameter, produces a 

 wood of a reddish brown tint, the sap being brownish white, 

 highly valued for its strength especially across the grain 

 toughness, closeness of texture, and great resistance to 

 crushing ; stands driving bolts and nails very well, excellent 

 in water or damp situations, and was formerly much used 

 for water-pipes in English towns, many of which, taken up 

 in recent years, bored to 3 or 4 inches diameter, after 

 being in the ground for a great number of years, were in 

 good condition. It was at one time a good deal used for 

 piling in difficult ground the piles of old London Bridge 

 were of elm, and found in good condition after being in the 

 ground for 800 years also for keels and other timbers of 

 ships, naves and spokes of wheels, and butchers' blocks ; it 

 is not now so much used, owing to the American elm being 

 more readily obtained of the required sizes, but the quality 

 of the latter is inferior. English elm is, however, still 

 supplied to South Wales from Gloucestershire and Somerset 

 for box-making in the tinplate trade whenever there is 

 a scarcity of birch, and used in large widths for wagon and 

 cart planking. The wood is much twisted in grain, which 

 makes it difficult to work, and it is very difficult to split, 

 though if left lying in the open is very liable to split. 

 Medullary rays scarcely noticeable, the pores run in peculiar 

 zig-zag and wavy lines. Used a good deal for coffins; so is 

 the Dutch elm, which is the same tree. The French elm is 

 also chiefly the wood of the U. campcstris, and grows to a 

 considerable size, but is not generally so hard as English 



