MODERN PROBLEMS 313 



note that, as far as numbers and the direct effect of the environ- 

 ment are concerned, but not necessarily so far as quaHty is 

 concerned, a low birth-rate and a low death-rate represent more 

 healthy conditions than a high birth-rate and a high death-rate. 

 There is a certain correlation between the birth-rate and the 

 death-rate, though it is often exaggerated. In Japan, for instance, 

 there has recently been a tendency towards a decrease in the 

 birth-rate and an increase in the death-rate. It is necessary to 

 beware of those sweeping generalizations which assert that a high 

 birth-rate means a high death-rate and vice versa. It may also 

 be noted that the decrease in the birth-rate has been attained 

 in different European countries in very different ways. Thus, 

 whereas in England the decrease has been general throughout the 

 country, in Germany it has been almost entirely confined to the 

 towns. 1 



Here, however, the discussion is limited to general principles ; 

 problems of this nature cannot be further inquired into. We have 

 already noted that minor fluctuations in the nearness of approach 

 to the optimum number as between neighbouring countries may 

 increase, if it does not give rise to, friction between them. We 

 may further note here that such consequences only follow when 

 there are differences of nationality involved. When within an 

 area inhabited by one nationality some part of it is becoming 

 under-populated — say the urban districts — population flows in 

 from other districts and in this case from the country. But when 

 one country is tending towards under-population and a neigh- 

 bouring country towards over-population, there is but little flow 

 of population and but little adjustment. Various difficulties, 

 some legal, others sentimental, check the movement towards the 

 less fully populated country. Nevertheless, there is some move- 

 ment. Thus there were resident in France in 1911 1,132,696 

 foreigners .2 But this immigration only went a little way towards 

 bringing up the population towards the level which was apparently 

 economically desirable, and there thus arose a position which 

 aggravated the tension between France and Germany. 



There are certain ' new ' countries where curious conditions 

 obtain. Their position cannot be judged in the same manner as 

 can that of a country which has long been settled. The occupation 



' Newsholme and Stevenson, loc. cit., p. 55. • Leroy-Beaulieu, Question 



de la PopiUation, p. 55. 



