72 



^l)c Javmcr's illonti)!}) Visitor. 



are fliiteil, some wilti soii^^iderahle reculiirity tlint 

 tlirv H'SHiiilile tlie c:ii'V(.'(l work on i)i!ilio;;iiiiy ftir- 

 iiiiiirc. Willi euro lur;re S|iK(;iMieiis riuiy lie oli- 

 liiiiiL'il, tlirei! or )i)iir iKct square. We iioliccd 

 one uliicli womIiI liave tiiiiile iiii exeell(Mit iiiid 

 ln;:iiilil'iil lire lio.iril for a siiinll fire |il;ii-e. 



How were llie iiicleiilations made ? iil cneli ex- 

 cessive deposile of limesioiie did lliere (iill ii|pon 

 llie wliole siirtlioe a tremendous shower of rain 

 or Inilsloiies just as the iriass was liardeiiiMi; ? or 

 did a (|iiaMliiy of water reitiaiii on the surface for 

 a loMir time in conslant a;iiiaiion ? 



When were these alternate strata of sand and 

 liiiieslone dei'osited ? Nuali's flnoil would seem 

 ton short a period. Il.is I his eoMlineiit. or this par- 

 ticular re;.'ioii, licen snhjected to f;reat ^'eolo.:;ical 

 chau;.'es since the delo;je.' or were these ehan- 

 g«B produced before the era of Noah or of Adam ? 

 — J'ennonl Chronicle 



From tlje Olive Branch. 

 Winter Butter. 



It is not easy to piescrihe rules for making 

 new hiiiter, especially dmiiii; the winter season. 

 Yet when we consider that none of the prodiiels 

 of the dairy .are more extensively used or ;reiie- 

 rallv adiiiireil. a fi'W hints rel.iiive to the siilijeet, 

 liiav not ho deemeil out ot,' place. "The difier- 

 oiiei'," remarks a jiidieioos author, "hetweeii 

 {rood and hall liiitler, is ,is wide as that helueeii 

 the zenith and the nadir." 'The first and most 

 es.seiilial point to he resiariled in hotter maUiiij;, 

 is to have every utensil used in the process per- 

 li;cllv I'leaii and sweet. The pails, pans, churns, 

 &e. &.e., iis well as the room in which the milk 

 is set while the cream is risiu-.', should he attended 

 to with most scru|irdous care and precision. No 

 siihstaiiee calculated to evolve an ofTensive o- 

 dor sheuld he perniiited in the vieiiiiiy, and the 

 influences of ileterioratiiifj gasi-s, frequently 

 arisiiiir li-om old wood, and de<Myini,' ve^'etalile 

 in.'iller, should he corrected hy (iajqueiil white- 

 uashin;.', and the presence of lime in ils caiislic 

 slate. The temperatni'e, also, of the milk should 

 he atleiided to. Hy too hiijli a temperature cream 

 will iuevitahly tie greaily deteriorated, or even 

 iiielied ; and diirinjr tin,' process of churning, if 

 llie temperature is too low, or if it fiill greatly 

 below (iom .')0= to GO', the hotter will he hitler, 

 and with aire acquire a rancid taste. Experien- 

 ced dnirv folks have considered a teii:peralure of 

 from liO- to (),")" ill the' ilaiiy the best Uir the for- 

 maiioii of good Cream, and this opinion seems lo 

 have been corrohoraled h.nli by experience and 

 Ecieiitilic research. 



"I have reiimrkeil," snys a practical English 

 iigriciiliiiral vvriler, " that greatly varjiug from 

 the above, the influence of teniperatiire is more 

 injmioiislv felt. In my dairy where ilie milk of 

 twenty corts is kept, the most scriipnioiis precis- 

 ion is observed in inaintaining a imllorm di'gn^c 

 of heal throughout the jcfar. If it (all greatly 

 below or ri.si: greatly above, tlii! butter is iiicvit- 

 nbly spoiled (iir the market. Six degrees on ei- 

 th(!r side u\' llie scale is latal lo the product as 

 re^arils the s de, giuil indeed the diMerelice is iij)- 

 parenl lo the lasle of any one." 



Aiioilier very iinpmiaut reipiisiie is the ine- 

 tliod of choriiiiig. This operaiion is ofien en- 

 trusted lo boys, who are either wholly neuleclful 

 of their duty, or who care so little about it as to 

 KiiH'er ihe process lo CDiiliniie till the cream is 

 spoiled. Afn r coaniieiiciiii.', the process should 

 coiiiinue with a regular .and uniform niolion till 

 the result ii^ luUy iitt.iined, and tli<! biuii.'r liirnied 

 mid separated from the milk, as far as ii can lie 

 ill the churn. 



'I'lie next thing to be aliended lo is the .sailing 

 of till! butter. Il is loo IViqueiitly the eas<: that 

 Kali of a coarse an. I infeiior ipialiiy is used ; and 

 thai so much is pin in ihat it is not dissolved and 

 remains in sliilu quo, lo annoy theleelh, and give 

 a disguslinir savor lo the biiiier, and jirovoke ex- 

 pe.ssivt! ihirsl. None but the finest salt should 

 be nsial for biiller, and thai should be carefully 

 selected and clarilied. One and a half ounce of 

 gooil salt is sMfyicient (!)r ii pound of butter ; it 

 should lar iboroiighly incorporated, and when 

 this is doiii^, it is qiieslionable wbelhei the iniio- 

 dnction of any oihir material is not lo be depie- 

 caled. Some dairy lidks, in order lo imparl a 

 "inking hue" to their linllia', add carrois. yolks of 

 eggs, anil other loluriiig invredieiils ; lint ihe 

 praciice is a deciili d injury lo the arlicle, ami 

 should iiuver be indulged. Tlie great point in 



makiii" ^ood butter, however, di.'^carding the mat- 

 ter of pigments, is the freezing it from the biit- 

 t(0-inilk. If everything else is done, the mere 

 ovc'rlooking or neglect of this imporlatit point 

 will destroy ibe whole. The least admixilire of 

 milk with the butter will give a rancid and unsa- 

 vory taste, and cause it, in lime, to become strong 

 and unwholesome. 



Sand, Lime and Clay, and their Use.i to 

 Vegetation. 



The great use ofahimina appears to he in giv- 

 ing fixity and substance to the sandy panicles of 

 H soil. In this view, (day is exceedingly benefi- 

 cial. Many barren, sandy soils, which Hoidd not 

 produce crops at all — indeed, mere shifting sands 

 liave been converted into fine arable land by 

 spreading clay over the sand ; the inaiitier of do- 

 ing which will bo tiescrihed hereafter, when we 

 come 10 such subjects as the claying and mar- 

 ling of sand. 



Besides the mere ineclianical benefit of clay 

 ill uniting and binding a .soil, it is of material 

 service in absorbing and retaining moisture. By 

 reference to the experiments given below, we see 

 thai cl.ay absorbs Hater more ipiickly and more 

 abundantly and retains it more teiiaeioiisly than 

 sand. Clay does not heat so rapidly as sand, with 

 the sun, and it cools more rapidly ; thus helping 

 in hot weather to maintain an equal temperalure 

 in the soil. It does not become so cold as sand 

 in winter, and as the action of frost causes il to 

 contract, it closely smronnds the roots or plants 

 and prevents them from being froziMi. 



Clay has also pre-eminently the property of 

 ahsmbing ainmoniacat anil other guses, which are 

 generated by decaying manure in the .soil. If in 

 u stable Irom whence the strong fumes of esca- 

 ping ammonia are issuing, you place a qiiaiitiiy 

 of dry powdered clay, thatstrcmg smell and gas- 

 eous efilnvia, wliieli almost look joiir brtath, and 

 made your eyes smart, will disappear. Wlu're 

 has it gone ? It is slill prnilnced as before, and 

 yet its presence is not perceived. The dry clay 

 absorlisit; and the escaping gases are fixed on 

 the earth, adding to its eiiricbment (Gypsum or 

 Plaster oi' I'aris has precisely the same efi'ecl, in 

 a more siriking degree.) A i-lay soil— or at least 

 one cimlaining (day in its composilion, will more 

 beneficially and completely use the manure laid 

 on il. W here niannre is put on land and ploUi;h- 

 ed in, for inslance, llie animoniai al and other 

 gases produced by its decompirsition are formed 

 in ihe soil, and are partially t.aki;u up inlo the 

 plants; but being liirmed taster tkan the plants 

 can absorb these products flnat away lo waste, 

 excepi the soil can attract and absorli them, and 

 lliiis hold them over iiiilil they are required. — 

 This, clay will do ; this sand alone will not do — 

 Ibis lime will net do — and hence it follows that 

 lands containing clay, constitute the most lasting 

 and prolific soils and are the must economical 

 (()r manuring. 



Linie is Ihe third chief constituent of .soils. It 

 is found in various prc^liortior.s in soils according 

 lis they are cah;ereous or otherwise; in some 

 soils il exists lo the extent of 55 to (iO per cent, 

 (d" the entire soil ; in others not nnu'e tiian 1,1 or 

 '20 per cent. ; w bile in some it exists in very small 

 (plan lilies, tu' may he aecounled altogether absent. 



The presence of lime is exceedingly valuable 

 lo soils, and ils artificial applicaliun necessary lu 

 the prodnclioii (if siiccessliil crops, where il does 

 not iialiirally' exist. Ils uses maybe considered 

 in lefenuice to ils iielion on the soil, and in di- 

 jccl applicalioii to living plants themselves. 



Lime acts on the soil, in loosening and n nder- 

 ing friable, slid days -in binding and rendering 

 eoinpact loose .sand — but mostly in acling as a 

 solveni lo sand, anil as a digesier and dissulver 

 of animal and vegetable! matter in the soil. — 

 \Vh(M-e lime finds vegeiable fibres wliieh are not 

 only useless, liiit injurious to sand, it decompo- 

 ses them, and yields up tla.'ir substances as hii- 

 mna to llii' living vegetation. Even sliiiis, wairms, 

 .and noxious insects, it wholly or partially des- 

 troys, and then decomposes llii'in — emieliing the 

 soil with llieir remains. Lime powerfully assists 

 a soil in mainlMining ils iiioislmat; it readily ab- 

 sorbs uioisinre, and is \inm retenlive of il. It 

 alistubs also ihe carhonir «n(/g//5 eseiiping fiauii 

 decaying vegetation in the soil, and retains it as 

 food Ibr planls. Ity the absorption of carbonic 

 acid, it converis into carbonate of lime or (dialk, 

 when its eolvent j)owers jreaily ceiis(>, and it then 



becomes direct food for plants, by itself dissolv- 

 ing in the rain water which lidls on the soil, and 

 then become* absorbed into Ibe substance of liv- 

 ing vegetables. 



In its direct use for food for planls, lime jdays 

 a very iin; oitant part, it is iieces.sary for all L'l'aili 

 crops, us il forms an important ennsiitiient in 

 their substance. In wheat ashes there is ubotit 

 four p(!r cent, of lime ; in oats about eight per 

 cent., and rather more on barley and rye. It ifl 

 found in the ashes of ;dl trees and phiiits, when- 

 ever these plants li.ave grown on a soil contuin- 

 ing lime. 



Lime is solvent in water to a great extent, a- 

 boiii .JOOIb.s. of water will dissolve I libl. of lime 

 sufficiently lo enable plants to lak(! il up liy ab- 

 sorption. All planls designed for human food, 

 or for the food of animals, absolutely require 

 Mine, as this siibst.ince eventually fruins hones of 

 linlli men and animals. Ileiice Ibr grazing pur- 

 poses, limestone lands are mueli superior to all 

 others and will rear a superior class of animal.s. 

 Horses, sheep and cattle fed on lands resting on 

 limestoHe Ibundalinn will lie stronger, firmer, and 

 more co'npaet, than if they were fed on a clayey 

 and sandy soil. — Phil. Sat. Courier. 



Kitchen Chemistry.— Soap. 



All fixed oils and fats, ore cap.ible of cornbinn- 

 lion with caustic alkalies, in the birmation of 

 soaps. There are in coinmerce three varieties of 

 soap ; 1st, hard uhlte soup, w hicb is made of tal- 

 low w ith caustic soda ; 2(1, hard yellow soup, w bicli 

 is made tiami tallow, palm-oil, ai d resin, with 

 caustic soda ; and 3d, soft soap, w hieb is a combi- 

 iialion of some oil or hit with caustic potash. — 

 The great difiVrence between hard and soil soap 

 is llii.s,^lbat the conibiu.alions of the fits or oils 

 with soda, iiiiiie with water in chemical union, 

 and fiiriii true solid hydrates, — in a similar way 

 that a certain poilion of water unites with quick- 

 lime in slacking, and becomes solid; while the 

 ciiinpounds ol' oils or fats with potash, merely ab- 

 sorb s\aler, and hence become a gelatinous mass. 

 Potash and soda, as usually existing, are weaken- 

 ed by combinaliou wiih carbonic acid; to form 

 soap this must he removed, and the .alkalies ren- 

 dered caustic by the addilion of lime. The pres- 

 ence of carbonic acid may always be discovered 

 by iidding an acid or strong vinegar, when it will 

 cause effervescence. 



Hard white soap is made siibslantially as fol- 

 lows: — A solmiiin of canslic soda, so strong that 

 iis specific gravity will be 1.0.5, is prepared, wbiidi 

 has been rendered caustic iiy ibe addilion of 

 qnick-linie, to take from it its carbonic acid. — 

 'I'bis solution, or soda-ley, is then made to boil, 

 and the tallow is added in small portions at a 

 time, until the soda is saturaied, and will convert 

 no more tallow inlo soap. The soap is then sep- 

 arated fi'om the water by adding, gradually cniii- 

 iiioii sail ; the soap being insnhihle in a solmion 

 of common salt, is separated and floats on the 

 surface. A pro)ier portion o(" salt must be added, 

 so as not lo deprive il of two inu(di water, w hicb 

 its appearance' uill indicate; when it is run into 

 wooden boxes, and ciil by a wire inlo the forms 

 it has in commerce. It thus usually conlaiii.s 

 from forty to fifty per cent, of water; if not over , 

 thirty, it is very bard ; and if seventy, ia not very 

 soli. 



Soft Soap is manidactnred (m a large scale, by 

 healing whale or seal oil, — wiili the addilion ofu 

 portion of tallow to render il less liquid, — in large 

 shallow pan.-, and gradually adding a ,«lrong so- 

 liilion of eauslic potash, boiling, and continually 

 agil.iting llie mass, uiilil the milkiiiess produced 

 bv the oil vani>hes, and ihe whole becomes near- 

 ly liansp.areul,and the t'rolli subsides. Il is evap- 

 (iraled uiilil llie operalor recognizes the proper 

 consistency, and is then rapidly cooled. 



Hut as every good housewife makes her own 

 so.ip, directions more particularly applicable 10 

 donieslic maniifaclure, may be most valuable. 



As poia>h ads sirongdy on wdody fibre', a strong 

 thick Irachluli, for dissidving the ashes into ley, 

 should be oblaiiied : a portion of the hollow 

 trunk of a bass-wo(Ml tree makes the besi and 

 iiio-t durable. Four barrels ol' ashes will iisiml- 

 ly make one barrel of good soap, and sometimes 

 nunc. As all ashes heroiiK! more or less weak- 

 ened by a combination willi the carbonic acid 

 of the air, a layer of (piiek-lime must Ix^ spri nd 

 iilier iIk! first portion of asbi>ti is put in, lo absorl) 

 liiis Hcid lioin lb« ley «8 it passes downwards. 



