268 ROADS AND ROAD BUILDING 



Furthermore, these deep ditches are frequently washed out to 

 still greater depths by the rains, and become a source of great 

 danger, especially when teams become frightened and draw wagons 

 or vehicles too near the edge of the road. 



The best results will generally be secured by having a small 

 ditch, and carrying the water at frequent intervals to the natural 

 water courses on either side by cross drains. For the cross drains 

 and culverts, vitrified tile, iron pipe, or concrete drains may be 

 used. On common country roads, the roadbed is often heaped up 

 high in the center with scrapers and then left to be beaten down by 

 travel, but this is a serious mistake, which should be avoided 

 whenever possible. The roadbed can be shaped much better 

 with a road grader, which gives a very gradual slope from the center 

 to either side. Generally a rise of eight to ten inches in the center 

 will be sufficient to afford ample drainage. Road graders are 

 costly, and in some cases the road once graded can be kept in 

 excellent shape by using a plank or split-log drag. Usually 

 a road district corresponds with the school district, and the 

 road overseer has supervision over all the roads of the district. 

 The building of costly bridges over large streams is left to the 

 county commissioners, who draw on the county funds for this 

 purpose. 



Foundation. In road building, or any other piece of construc- 

 tion in the line of engineering, the first requisite is a proper founda- 

 tion. In paved streets and roads, many people suppose that the 

 load is borne by the surface of the paving, but such is not the case. 

 The load is really supported by the foundation, on which the sur- 

 face construction rests. The paving merely serves as a roof to 

 keep the foundation dry and to protect it against indentation 

 and wear when heavy wagons and vehicles of various kinds are 

 driven over the road. If excavations are made for drainage 

 pipes or sewers, the ground must be well firmed and packed before 

 any paving is placed on the road or street. If this is not done, 

 the soil will settle after heavy rains, and the paving, being left 

 without any support, will cave in. In this work the use of a heavy 

 steam roller is necessary to give proper firmness to the ground 

 over which the roadbed passes. In the country the clay soil 

 usually affords a proper foundation when properly graded and 



