134 THE PRINCIPLES OF 



includes ploughing, specially upon that large medium class 

 of soils which is fairly retentive of moisture, and is at the 

 same time easily brought into a state of tilth. Upon such 

 land the plough ought to be used in the spring of the year, 

 but repeated spring ploughings and late spring ploughings 

 are not to be recommended. 



In the case of very stiff lands and in the case of very light 

 lands avoid ploughing late in the spring of the year. 

 Ploughing is essentially an inversion of the soil, therefore 

 ploughing buries the fine surface, and brings up retentive 

 raw material, whereas cultivation or grubbing, whether done 

 by horse or by steam power and I prefer the latter breaks 

 the under soil, but it retains all the fine pulverized material 

 upon the surface. Likewise in the case of light land, late 

 spring ploughing is to be undertaken with caution because 

 it dries the ground to too great an extent. It is impossible 

 to exactly describe spring cultivation; but our object is 

 always the same, namely, to preserve and obtain a fine 

 surface to keep in the moisture, and to secure a thoroughly 

 clean soil, or seed bed. Root cultivation differs from grain 

 cultivation in another respect, namely, that the crops are 

 subjected to a systematic course of after cultivation. As 

 soon as the young turnips are visible hoeing commences, 

 very frequently flat hoeing or hand-hoeing, followed by horse- 

 hoeing between the rows, followed by singling out the surplus 

 plants, setting them out at intervals of ten, twelve, or even 

 thirteen inches from each other. Horse and hand-hoeing 

 are repeated according to the district in which we may be. 

 In the north of England the stereotyped idea is three horse- 

 hoeings and three hand-hoeings three horse-hoeings between 

 the rows, and three hand-hoeings in the rows. In the south 

 of England, where harvest is earlier, this important operation 

 interferes with the third hoeing of the turnip crop, and twice 

 hoeing is all that the crop usually receives. 



