II] WOODLAND ASSOCIATIONS 51 



occasionally occurs in similar situations. The bramble or 

 blackberry is very abundant, " Rubus Selmeri and Rubus 

 dasyphyllus reaching the highest altitude" (Linton, 1903: 114) 

 of any of the segregates of this polymorphous group. The 

 dewberry (R. caesius) is confined to the lower altitudes, 

 where it is rather local. 



Briers or wild roses (Rosa spp.) are common and generally 

 distributed, especially R. canina. R. tomentosa is local; and 

 " R. mollis " has been recorded. R. arvensis is locally abundant 

 at the lower altitudes. Other species of Rosa and Rubus are 

 enumerated at the end of the chapter. 



Sloe or blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) is a constant, though, 

 as a rule, an infrequent member of the association. Rarely, 

 as by the stream sides in some of the cloughs, it forms dense 

 thickets. It rarely ripens its fruits at altitudes greater than 

 600 feet (183 in.). Bird-cherry (Primus Padus) is abundant 

 in some of the cloughs; but it becomes more and more un- 

 common as the plains are approached. Conversely, the cherry 

 (Prunus avium) is commoner at the lower levels, and fails to 

 ascend higher than about 600 feet (183 m.). 



Gorse or furze (Ulex europaeus) is thinly scattered through 

 the woods at the lower altitudes; and the dwarf furze (Ulex 

 Oallii) is often abundant on the outskirts of the woods at the 

 higher altitudes. 



Broom (Cytisus scoparius) is found but rarely inside the 

 woods; but, like the two species of Ulex, it is often abundant 

 on the outskirts of the woods. 



The holly (Ilex Aquifolium) occurs in almost every oak 

 wood of the district, and is typically abundant where the soil 

 is moderately dry. It is occasionally the last isolated tree seen 

 in ascending the cloughs. Linton (1903: 97) records it as 

 occurring at an altitude of 1050 feet (318 m.) in Jagger's 

 Clough. The plant rarely produces flowers, and still more 

 rarely produces ripe fruit at the higher altitudes on the 

 Pennines. 



The maple (Acer campestre), as a shrub, is confined to com- 

 paratively low altitudes, and is not encountered at all in the 

 higher and remoter cloughs. As a tree, it is almost if not 

 quite unknown in the woods of the district. The sycamore 

 (* Acer Pseudoplatanus) is always an introduction, though, as 



