133 



latter is the factor which, in Mill, serves as the basis for the 

 principle of utility, namely, judgment, or rational insight. 

 Different men have different feelings in connection with a 

 certain action, but as social beings members of an organic 

 whole, such feelings must be restrained in the interests of such 

 whole. There results, therefore, a joint judgment, that is, one 

 judgment instead of several, which takes the form of a law, 

 or social arrangement, education, or opinion. 



If every individual acts from the social point of view 

 the universal law, in Kantian terminology then society, as 

 it were, acts in him. For this, it is necessary that every 

 member of society be considered as a person. And in view of 

 this, Kant states his second maxim: "So act as to treat hu- 

 manity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, 

 in every case as an end withal, never as means only." 1 If 

 one treats all the others as means, this would practically imply, 

 from the social standpoint, that society would be represented 

 in its totality in the one individual. But, if a man considers 

 himself to be a member of society, there must then be other 

 members in the same sense that he himself is a member. 

 On this basis, aristocracy, monopoly, slavery, or any other in- 

 stitution which sacrifices some persons to others, is open to 

 condemnation. 



Kant's "third practical principle of the will", namely, 

 "the idea of the will of every rational being as a universally 

 legislative will", 2 definitely sets forth the idea of the state. 

 "The conception of every rational being as one which must 

 consider itself as giving in all the maxims of its will universal 

 laws, so as to judge itself and its actions from this point of 

 view this conception leads to another which depends on it, 

 and is very fruitful, namely, that of a kindgom of ends." 3 



"By a kingdom, I understand the union of different 

 rational beings in a system by common laws. Now, since it 

 is by law that ends are determined as regards their universal 

 validity, hence if we abstract from the personal differences of 

 rational beings, and likewise from all the content of their 

 private ends, we shall be able to conceive all ends combined in 

 a systematic whole." 4 



Man is, therefore, at once a subject and a sovereign in 

 the kingdom of ends; a subject because he must submit to 

 the universal laws binding upon all ; a sovereign because these 

 laws are imposed upon him by his own reason. In other 



O.C. p. 47. 

 20.C. p. 49. 

 'O.C. p. 51. 

 4 Ibid.. 



