FURTHER MEANS OF INTERCOURSE. 509 



by no means confined to separation from the outside world. The 

 natural hindrances to commerce are occasioned by the long ex- 

 tended form of the Japanese Empire, and its being split up into 

 many islands, also by its dominating mountainous character and 

 the swelling and overflowing of its numerous rivers during the 

 frequent long rains. 



The highways, or Do, each one of which connects the provinces 

 of a generally long extent of territory, as e.g. the T6-kai-d6 and 

 the Naka-sen-do, served almost exclusively military and adminis- 

 trative purposes. We must not think of them as well-made high- 

 ways laid out like our own, according to a comprehensive plan, 

 and provided with similar means of conveyance. There are no 

 stretches of macadamized road, and paving is seldom seen, and 

 only in places where the steepness of a particularly important 

 mountain pass makes it necessary, as e.g. on the Hakone pass. 

 For this reason most of the Japanese country highways are utterly 

 useless for heavy conveyances in rainy weather. They are not 

 intended for this purpose. Since heavy wagons were not used — 

 indeed, were wholly unknown — and even the Chinese wheelbarrow 

 was only exceptionally seen, people either walked or rode in sedan- 

 chairs, luggage and merchandise was carried almost exclusively by 

 bearers or beasts of burden (horses or oxen)^ till modern times, 

 the requirements for a solid foundation and greater weight did 

 not exist. Even now, except the numerous Jin-riki-shas,^ a few 

 coaches which travel the better roads from Tokio to Odawara, 

 Takasaki and Utsunomiya, and some heavy carts, no conveyances 

 are to be seen on the Japanese roads. 



The road has a varying width ; is sometimes narrowed to a 

 simple path, and at others ten or more meters broad. The cross- 

 ing of the rivers is provided for by bridges and ferries, but at the 

 time of long, heavy rains the road is often obstructed for days. 

 The oldest and best known country roads of Japan are those which 

 connect Kioto with Tokio, the T6-kai-d6, i.e. " East Sea Road/' 

 which passes along in the vicinity of the sea, and the Naka-sen-d6, 

 " the street between the mountains," through the interior of Hondo. 

 The former is 125 Ri long, the latter 132 Ri. There is also an 

 Oshiu-kai-do, which leads from Tokio toward the north to Awomori, 

 19 1 J Ri distant, and the San-yo-do, from Kioto to Shimonoseki, 

 which passes along the Inland Sea ; and several others of those old 

 country roads of the principal islands, upon which in former times 



^ 40 Kam-me (=I50'26 kilograms) are counted a fair horse-load on a good 

 even road, but upon the worst mountain paths only 18 Kam-me, or 67*62 kilo- 

 grams. The load for a man is a weight of 7 Kam-me (=25 '3 kilograms). 



2 Jin-riki-sha, i.e. " Man-power wagon," is a modern very popular vehicle, 

 introduced into Japan some twenty years ago, and now as universal as the cabs 

 of our cities. The Jin-riki-sha, or Kuruma (wagon), is a two-wheeled light 

 cart with a seat over the axle, and a pair of shafts in which the Ninsoku, or 

 man, places himself. He grasps the two poles, and then rushes forward at a 

 rapid rate with his load of one or two persons. 



