BIOLOGY AMONG THE SCIENCES 1133 



so that comparative anatomy arose. Galen had dissected apes, as 

 substitutes for human bodies; but Belon, in an immortal figure, 

 compares the skeleton of a man with that of a bird ; hence a clear 

 beginning for comparative anatomy proper. The collection and 

 discrimination of medicinal plants and their products has obviously 

 been a practical necessity from earliest times, thus Aristotle's pupil 

 Dioscorides bequeathed us his History of Plants. But the real 

 ordering of plants in general and utilising the work of precursors 

 too numerous for mention here, is that of Linnaeus. His Systema 

 Natiirce (1735) uses simple external characters, so contained no 

 considerable new addition to anatomy; but the "Natural System" 

 initiated in the later part of the century by Jussieu went further 

 into structure, in comparison of flowers especially, so had also the 

 merit of inspiring the great initiator of modern comparative anatomy, 

 Cuvier. His Regne Animal is thus a work from which Owen and 

 Huxley in this country, and others abroad, were direct continuators, 

 not here to speak of their pupils and successors up to the present day. 

 For the working of the organs of the bod}^ however, the epoch- 

 making advance from the fundamental to the modern history of 

 the subject is, of course, Harvey's immortal treatise on the circu- 

 lation of the blood. He had, indeed, not a few precursors, whose 

 particular discoveries and arguments no doubt aided and inspired 

 him, e.g. Steno, for the valves on the veins, and Csesalpinus with 

 more general view, whence long controversy as to the claims and 

 merits of the latter. Harvey's decisive position, as master of the 

 subject and initiator of further research, has been clearly justified 

 by historians up to the latest, Dr. Singer, whose admirable book 

 well rewards study. And this not only for its special contents; but 

 also for its general elucidation of so many lines of progress in 

 science, as dependent upon bright precursors; yet these preparing 

 and needing an editorially searching and critical mind to incorporate 

 their contributions, and to develop from and beyond these, with 

 originality of his own, up to a full and clear conception; so with 

 capital importance as an initiative for future research as well. To 

 ensure acceptance, all such work must be able to stand criticism, 

 and to admit of verification. In Harvey's case, this was notably 

 given by Stephen Hales, who not only corroborated his work, but 

 extended it clearly to other animals. By his fresh, yet derived, con- 

 ception of "the circulation of the sap", he became the initiator of 

 vegetable physiology; though this has needed researches up to date, 

 if indeed these now suffice, fully to correct and clarify his initial 

 conception. Returning to the circulation of the blood, Harvey's 

 most vivid continuator was Malpighi, with his ocular demonstration 

 of the actual passage of blood from arteries to veins through the 

 capillaries of the web of the frog's foot, observed under the 

 microscope. 



