238 BIOLOGICAL LECTURES. 



die subjectiven Vorgange beim Menschen, c deren objective Aeus- 

 serungen, b die objectiven Aeusserungen der subjectiven Vorgange 

 bei den Versuchsobjecten und x die zu erforschenden subjectiven 

 Zustande dieser selbst sind, Aufschluss iiber die subjectiven Vor- 

 gange der betreffenden Organismen erlangen. 



The striking feature in this method is the assumption of the 

 fact to be proved namely, the existence of psychical processes 

 in the organisms to be investigated. According to the equa- 

 tion given, not only the whole earthworm but any isolated piece 

 of the same would be capable of psychical processes, since upon 

 injury it reacts in the same manner as the whole worm. 



Those holding the second view seek to analyze the reactions 

 of animals on purely mechanical grounds. The most pro- 

 nounced defender of this view is Loeb. 1 He has by this 

 method shown that the phenomena of orientation of animals 

 towards light agree in every particular with the phenomena of 

 orientation of plants towards the same source of stimulus. 

 Hence the heliotropic reactions of plants must be referred to 

 " curiosity," or to some other anthropomorphic process, or else 

 it must be admitted that the phenomena of orientation of ani- 

 mals are to be explained just as mechanically as in the case of 

 plants. 



That consciousness is a function of associative memory 

 (associatives Gedachtniss) has been emphasized by Loeb. 2 But 

 memory has thus far been proved with certainty only in such 

 forms as have a well-developed cerebrum. The facts of brain 

 physiology speak decidedly against the view that phenomena 

 of consciousness are everywhere present in the animal 

 kingdom. 3 



It cannot, however, be denied that certain reactions of lower 

 animals against injury, which in man cause pain, lead the inex- 

 perienced person easily to the conclusion that these animals 

 really suffer pain. An earthworm, for example, touched with 



1 Loeb, J., Der Heliotropismus der Thiere und seine Uebereinstimmung mit 

 dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen. Wiirzburg, 1890. 



2 Loeb, J., " Beitrage der Gehirnphysiologie der Wiirmer," Pfiiiger's Archiv, 

 Bd. Ivi. 



3 Loeb, J., "... Zur Physiologic und Psychologic der Actinien," Pfliiger's Archiv, 

 Bd. lix. 



