Book V. LABOURS WITH CATTLE ON THE SOIL. 627 



render necessary, though three must always be employed, — the last of them at the end of the intended 

 ridge, ami the whole in one straight line. He then enters the plough at the first pole, keeping tire line of 

 poles exactly between his horses', andploughs down all the poles successively ; halting his horses at each, 

 and replacing it at so many feet distant as the ridges are to be broad ; so that when he readies the end of 

 the ridge, alf his poles are again set up in a new line parallel to the first. He returns, however, along his 

 former track, correcting any deviations, and throwing a shallow furrow on the side opposite to his former 

 one. These furrows, when reversed, form the crown of the ridge, and direct the ploughmen who are lo 

 follow. The same operations are carried on until the w hole field is marked out. This is called faring in 

 Scotland, and striking or drawing out the furrows in England. It is surprising with what accuracy these 

 lines are drawn bv skilful ploughmen. 



3252. Another method has been adopted for the same purpose, which promises to be useful with less 

 experienced workmen. A stout lath or pole, exactly equal in length to the breadth of the intended ridge, 

 is fixed to the plough, at right angles to the line of the draught, one end of which is placed across tin- 

 handles exactly opposite the coulter, while the other end projects towards the left hand of the plough. 

 man, and is preserved in its place by a rope passing from it to the collar of the near side horse. At the 

 outer end of the lath, a coulter or harrow tine is fixed perpendicularly, which makes a trace or mark on 

 the ground as the plough moves onwards, exactly parallel to the line of draught. By this device, when 

 the plough is feiring the crown of one ridge, the marker traces the line on which the next ridge is to be 

 feired. [General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 354.) 



3253. The direction and length of ridges are points which must evidently be regulated by the nature of 

 the surface and the size of the field. Short angular ridges, called butts or short work, which are often 

 necessary in a field with irregular boundaries, are always attended with a considerable loss of time, and 

 ought to be avoided as much as possible. 



3254. In ploughing steep land it is advisable to give the ridges an inclination towards the right hand at 

 the top, by which, in going up the acclivity, the furrow falls more readily from the plough, and with less 

 fatigue to the horses. Another advantage of forming ridges in a slanting direction on such land is, that 

 the soil is not so apt to be washed down from the higher ground, as if the ridges were laid at right angles. 

 Wherever circumstances will permit, the best direction, however, is due north and south, by which the 

 grain on both sides of the ridge enjoys nearlv equal advantages from the influence of the sun. 



3255. RUibing, a kind of imperfect ploughing, was formerly common on land intended for barley, and 

 was executed soon after harvest, as a preparation for the spring ploughings. A similar operation is still 

 m use in some places, after land has been pulverised by clean ploughings, and is ready for receiving the 

 seed. By this method only half the land is stirred, the furrow being laid over quite flat, and covering an 

 equal space of the level surface. But, except in the latter instance, where corn is meant to grown in 

 parallel lines, and where it is used as a substitute for a drill-machine, ribbing is highly objectionable, and 

 has become almost obsolete. 



3256. Land thus formed into ridges is afterwards cultivated without marking out the ridges 

 anew, until the inter-furrows have been obliterated by a fallow or fallow crop. This is done 

 by one or other of the following modes of ploughing : — 1. If the soil be dry, and the 

 land has been ploughed fiat, the ridges are split out in such a way, that the space which 

 the crown of the old ridge occupied is now allotted to the open furrow between the new 

 ones. This is technically called crown and furrow ploughing. 2. When the soil is 

 naturally rather wet, or if the ridges have been raised a little by former ploughings, the 

 form of "the old ridges, and the situation of the inter-furrows, are presetted by what is 

 called casting, that is, the furrows of each ridge are all laid in one direction, while those 

 of the next adjoining ridges are turned the contrary way ; two ridges being always 

 ploughed together. 3. It is commonly necessary to raise the ridges on soils very tena- 

 cious of moisture, by what is called gathering, which is done by the plough going round 

 the ridge, beginning at the crown and raising all the furrow-slices inwards. 4. This last 

 operation, when it is wished to give the land a level surface, as in fallowing, is reversed 

 by turning all the furrow slices outwards; beginning at the inter-furrows, and leaving 

 an open furrow on the crown of each ridge. In order to bring the land into as level a 

 state as possible, the same mode of ploughing or casting, as it is called, may be repeated 

 as often as necessary. 



3257. With respect to ploughing relatively to time, in the strongest lands, a pair of 

 good horses ought to plough three quarters of an acre in nine hours ; but upon the same 

 land, after the first ploughing, on friable soils, one acre, or an acre and a quarter, is a 

 common day's work. Throughout the year, an acre a day may be considered as a full 

 average, on soils of a medium consistency. The whole series of furrows on an English 

 statute acre, supposing each to be nine inches broad, would extend to 19,360 yards ; and 

 adding 1 2 yards to every 220 for the ground travelled over in turning, the whole work 

 of an°acre may be estimated at 20,416 yards, or 11 miles and nearly 5 furlongs. 



3258. In ploughing relatively to season, it is well known that clayey or tenacious soils 

 should never be ploughed when wet ; and that it is almost equally improper to allow them 

 to become too dry, especially if a crop is to be sown without a second ploughing. The 

 state in which such lands should be ploughed is that which is commonly indicated by the 

 phrase, " between the wet and the dry," — while the ground is slightly moist, mellow, 

 and the least cohesive. 



3259. The season best for ploughing the first time, for fallow or green crops, is imme- 

 diately after harvest, or after wheat-sowing is finished ; and when this land has been 

 gone over, the old tough swards, if there be any, are next turned up. The reasons 

 for ploughing so early are sufficiently obvious ; as the frosts of winter render the soil 

 more friable for the spring operations, and assist in destroying the weed roots. In 

 some places, however, the first ploughing for fallow is still delayed till after the spring 

 seed-time. On extraordinary occasions land may be ploughed in the night as well as in 

 the day, by hanging lanterns to the horses' collars. This, it is said, is sometimes done in 

 East Lothian, during a hurried seed-time. {Farm. Mag. vol. ix. p. 55.) 



