CLASSIFICATION OF SYMPETALAE 259 



series be broken up as suggested above, Plantaginales should 

 certainly be coordinate with Polemoniales, Borraginales, Labi- 

 atales, and Personales. 



The two remaining alliances are epigynous and naturally 

 form the culmination of the Sympetalae. In both alliances there 

 is actinomorphy and numerous ovules, but in both there is more 

 or less development of zygomorphy; a tendency to reduction 

 in numbers of members, especially of the ovules; and a tend- 

 ency to reduce the flowers in size and to mass them, leading 

 to a modification of floral structures and a differentiation of 

 the functions of individual flowers. 



VII. RUBIALES. This includes the Rubiaceae, Caprifolia- 

 ceae, Adoxaceae, Valerianaceae, and Dipsaceae, together con- 

 taining nearly 4,800 species, the large family being Rubiaceae 

 with nearly 4,100 species. 



The possible relationship of this alliance to the Gentianales, 

 especially the Loganiaceae, has been mentioned, from which 

 it seems to be an epigvnous offshoot. At the same time, rela- 

 tions to the epigvnous Umbellales among the Archichlamydeae 

 are no less evident. It may possibly be found, as intimated in 

 the last chapter, that the Umbellales should be associated with 

 the Rubiales as two parallel alliances of epigvnous Sympetalae. 

 Through the Caprifoliaceae the Valerianaceae and Dipsaceae 

 are closely connected with the alliance ; while the position of the 

 Adoxaceae is altogether uncertain. The distinguishing char- 

 acter to separate Rubiales from the next alliance is not always 

 clear, but in general the connivent and often united anthers of 

 the Campanales are not present in the Rubiales ; but this char- 

 acter is fortified by distinct developmental tendencies. 



VIII. CAMPAXALES. This includes the Cucurbitaceae, 

 Campanulaceae, Goodeniaceae, Candolleaceae, Calyceraceae, 

 and Compositae, together containing more than 14,500 species, 

 fully 12,500 of which are Compositae, the Campanulaceae con- 

 taining nearly 1,100. 



Connivent and often united anthers, and sometimes mona- 

 delphous stamens, prevail in the series. The peculiar tropical 

 Cucurbitaceae occupy a special place in the alliance, and can not 

 be related clearly to the others ; while the Campanulaceae seem 

 to represent a remnant of the ancient stock of the alliance, from 

 which the other families have arisen. 



