202 THE EEGULATION OF NUMBEES 



not applied by Malthus to the population question. This was 

 undertaken by later writers. The development of the modern 

 theory need not detain us ; it is of interest, however, to observe 

 that J. S. _Mill, whose influence over contemporary thought was 

 so great, never shook off the deep impression made upon him 

 early in life by the Malthusian theory. He exhibited a remark- 

 able dread of over-population, and in his Principles of Political 

 Economy seems to have regarded diminishing returns as so often 

 arising that only rarely could an increase in population be advan- 

 tageous. He appears in fact to have thought that after a certain 

 stage all further increase in population was harmful, and to have 

 looked upon * the degree of industry which is required for the 

 maximum productiveness of industry as something fixed once 

 and for all '.* Mill's view, therefore, though founded upon the 

 productiveness of industry, differs from the modern view to which 

 it has given place. It has since been clearly established that 

 there is no maximum density desirable from the point of view 

 of productiveness ; so long as skill increases, other things being 

 equal, so long will the desirable density increase. The influence 

 of Mill's writings has had the effect of keeping alive in England 

 longer than elsewhere the pessimistic view of the problem which 

 the teaching of Malthus had originally given rise to. 2 So strong 

 were Mill's opinions that he regarded the limitation of the family 

 by virtuous restraint as one of the most desirable of social reforms. 

 He was led in the following passage to express views that are 

 strongly in contrast with those of the many who now deplore the 

 decline of the birth-rate among the upper social classes of to-day. 

 * Little improvement ', he said, ' can be expected in morality 

 until the producing of large families is regarded with the same 

 feelings as drunkenness or any other physical excess. But while 

 the aristocracy and clergy are foremost to give the example 

 of this kind of incontinence, w r hat can be expected of the 

 poor ? ' 3 



3. This conception of an optimum number holds good wherever 

 there is social co-operation between groups of men living within 

 definite areas. As we have seen a primitive form of social organiza- 

 tion exists among all these races. This implies in itself a certain 



1 Caiman, Theories of Production and Distribution, p. 181. 2 See Leroy- 



Beaulieu, Question de la Population, ch. iii. 3 Quoted by Nicholson, loc. cit., 



vol. i, p. 180. 



