286 THE KEGULATION OF NUMBEKS 



of which, there is good reason to think, was the cause of the decline 

 in real wages noticeable in the early years of the present century, 

 all affect real wages. 



1880 .. 



1881-5 .. 



1886-90 .. 



1891-5 .. 

 1896-1900 . 



1901-5 .. 



1906-10 .. 



1911 .. 



1912 .. 



1913 .. 



All the evidence points to the same conclusion namely, that 

 throughout this period there has, on the whole, been an increase 

 in the average real income per head, and that therefore there has 

 been no over-population in England. On the whole the same 

 conclusion applies to other countries in which the industrial 

 conditions are more or less similar. It is well known that during 

 this period there have been very remarkable fluctuations in the 

 birth-rate. In England it was stationary from about 1840 to 

 1880. Since that date it has declined by about one-third. 1 It 

 seems clear that during this latter period the rapid increase of 

 the former period ceased to be economically advantageous. In 

 other words the decline has been in response to changing economic 

 conditions. What we have now to ask is how the desirability of 

 a limited increase under the conditions existing in this period 

 can have been so realized that the adjustment of numbers to 

 economic requirements took place. 



18. The factors bearing upon fertility and elimination are in 

 this sub-group in the main the same as those in the former sub- 

 group. The factors which did or may have limited fertility in 

 the earlier groups are again absent. Postponement of marriage 

 is, as in the third sub-group, an important factor and in addition 

 for the first time contraceptive practices play a large part. The 

 importance of contraceptive practices, together with the decline 

 in the birth-rate, due to the start made in this period towards the 

 mastering of disease, are the chief differences to be noticed when 

 comparing conditions in this sub-group with those in the former. 

 It may also be noticed that the factors of elimination are more 



1 The decline in Austria dates from 1883, in Germany, Hungary, and Italy, 

 from 1885, in Norway from 1900. 



