48o 



NATURE 



[September 13, 1900 



•any considerable experience in the proper use of solvents. In 

 short, one does not, as Liebig said, become a chemist." 



One reason why the present system of training chemists has 

 persisted so long is no doubt because it is a very convenient 

 system : it is easily taught, does not require expensive apparatus, 

 and, above all, it lends itself admirably for the purpose of 

 competitive examination. 



The system of examination which has been developed during 

 the last twenty years has done much harm, and is a source of 

 great difficulty to any conscientious teacher who is possessed of 

 originality, and is desirous, particularly in special cases, of leaving 

 the beaten track. 



In our colleges and universities most of the students work for 

 some definite examination — frequently for the Bachelor of 

 Science degree — either at their own University or at the 

 University of London. 



For such degrees a perfectly definite course is prescribed and 

 must be followed, because the questions which the candidate 

 will have to answer at his examination are based on a syllabus 

 which is either published or is known by precedent to be required. 

 The course which the teacher is obliged to teach is thus placed 

 beyond his individual power of alteration, except in minor 

 details, and originality in the teacher is thereby discouraged : he 

 knows that all students must face the same examination, and he 

 must urge the backward man through exactly the same course as 

 his more talented neighbour. 



In almost all examinations salts or mixtures of salts are given 

 for qualitative analysis. "Determine the constituents of the 

 simple salt A and of the mixture B " is a favourite examination 

 formula ; and as some practical work of this sort is sure to be 

 set, the teacher knows that he must contrive to get one and all 

 of his students into a condition to enable them to answer such 

 questions. 



If, then, one considers the great amount of work which is 

 required from the present-day student, it is not surprising that 

 every aid to rapid preparation for examination should be accepted 

 with delight by the teacher ; and thus it comes about that tables 

 are elaborated in every detail, not only for qualitative analysis in 

 inorganic chemistry, but, what is far worse, for the detection of 

 some arbitrary selection of organic substances which may be set 

 in the syllabus for the examination. I question whether any 

 really competent teacher will be found to recommend this 

 system as one of educational value or calculated to bring out and 

 train the faculty of original thought in students. 



If, then, the present system is so unsatisfactory, it will naturally 

 be asked. How are students to be trained, and how are they to 

 be examined so as to find out the extent of the knowledge of 

 their subject which they have acquired ? 



In dealing with the first part of the question — that is, the 

 training best suited to chemists— I can, of course, only give my 

 own views on the subject— views which, no doubt, may differ 

 much from those of many of the teachers present at this meeting. 

 The objects to be attained are, in my opinion, to give the 

 student a sufficient knowledge of the broad facts of chemistry, 

 and at the same time so to arrange his practical work in par- 

 ticular as to always have in view the training of his faculty of 

 original thought. 



I think it will be conceded that any student, if he is to make 

 his mark in chemistry by original work, must ultimately specialise 

 in some branch of the subject. It may be possible for some 

 great minds to do valuable original work in more than one branch 

 of chemistry, but these are the exceptions ; and as time goes on, 

 and the mass of facts accumulates, this will become more and 

 more impossible. Now a student at the commencement of his 

 career rarely knows which branch of the subject will fascinate 

 him most, and I think, therefore, that it is necessary, in the first 

 place, to do all that is possible to give him a thorough grounding 

 in all branches of the subject. In my opinion the student is 

 taken over too much ground in the lecture courses of the present 

 day : in inorganic chemistry, for example, the study of the rare 

 metals and their reactions might be dispensed with, as well as 

 many of the more difficult chapters of physical chemistry, and in 

 organic chemistry such complicated problems as the constitutions 

 of uric acid and the members of the camphor and terpene series, 

 &c. , might well be left out. As matters stand now, instruction 

 must be given on these subjects simply because questions 

 bearing on them will probably be asked at the examination. 



And here, perhaps, I migjit make a confession, in which I do 

 not ask my fellow-teachers to join me. My name is often 

 attached to chemistry papers which I should be sorry to have to 



NO. 161I, VOL. 62] 



answer ; and it seems to me the standard of examination papers, 

 and especially of Honours examination papers, is far too high. 

 Should we demand a pitch of knowledge which our own 

 experience tells us cannot be maintained for long ? 



In dealing with the question of teaching practical chemistry, 

 it may be hoped, in the first place, that in the near future a 

 sound training will be given in elementary science in most 

 schools, very much on the lines which I mentioned in the first 

 part of this address. The student will then be in a fit state to 

 undergo a thoroughly satisfactory course of training in inorganic 

 chemistry during his first two years at college. Without wish- 

 ing in any way to map out a definite course, I may be allowed 

 to suggest that instead of much of the usual qualitative and 

 quantitative analysis, practical exercises similar to the following 

 will be found to be of much greater educational value. 



(i) The careful experimental demonstration of the funda- 

 mental laws of chemistry and physical chemistry. 



(2) The preparation of a series of compounds of the more 

 important metals, either from their more common ores or from 

 the metals themselves. With the aid of the compounds thus 

 prepared the reactions of the metals might be studied and the 

 similarities and differences between the different metals then 

 carefully noted. 



(3) A course in which the student should investigate in certain 

 selected cases : {a) the conditions under which action takes 

 place ; {b) the nature of the products formed ; (c) the yield 

 obtained. If he were then to proceed to prepare each product 

 in a state of purity, he would be doing a series of exercises of 

 the highest educational value. 



(4) The determination of the combining weights of some of 

 the more important metals. This is in most cases compara- 

 tively simple, as the determination of the combining weights of 

 selected metals can be very accurately carried out by measuring 

 the hydrogen evolved when an acid acts upon them. 



Many other exercises of a similar nature will readily sug- 

 gest themselves, and in arranging the course every effort 

 should be made to induce the student to consult original 

 papers, and to avoid as far as possible any tendency to mere 

 mechanical work. 



The exact nature of such a course must, however, necessarily 

 be left very much in the hands of the teacher, and the details 

 will no doubt require much consideration ; but I feel sure that a 

 course of practical inorganic chemistry could be constructed 

 which, while teaching all the important facts which it is neces- 

 sary for the student to know, will, at the same time, constantly 

 tend to develop his faculty of original thought. 



Supposing such a course were adopted (and the experiment 

 is well worth trying), there still remains the problem of how 

 the student who has had this kind of training is to be 

 examined. 



With regard to his theoretical work there would be no diffi- 

 culty, as the examination could be conducted on much the same 

 lines as at the present time. In the case of the practical exami- 

 nation I have long felt that the only satisfactory method of 

 arriving at the value of a student's practical knowledge is by the 

 inspection of the work which he has done during the whole of his 

 course of study, and not by depending on the results of one or 

 two days' set examination. I think that most examiners will 

 agree with me that the present system of examination in practical 

 chemistry is highly unsatisfactory. This is perhaps not so appa- 

 rent in the case of the qualitative analysis of the usual simple 

 salt or mixture ; but when the student has to do a quantitative 

 exercise, or when a problem is set, the results sent in are fre- 

 quently no indication of the value of the student's practical 

 work. Leaving out of the question the possibility of the student 

 being in indifferent health during the short period of the prac- 

 tical examination, 'it not infrequently happens that he, in his 

 excitement, has the misfortune to upset a beaker when his 

 quantitative determination is nearly finished, and as a result 

 he loses far more marks than he should do for so simple an 

 accident. 



Again, in attacking a problem he has usually only time to try 

 one method of solution, and if this does not yield satisfactory 

 results he again loses marks ; whereas in the ordinary course of 

 his practical work, if he were to find that the first method was 

 faulty, he would try other methods until he ultimately arrived at 

 the desired result. 



It is difficult to see why such an unsatisiactory system as this 

 might not be replaced by one of inspection which I think could 

 easily be so arranged as to work well. 



