20 Chapter I. 



In what does the pretended psychological superi- 

 ority of the associations of higher animals over ant 

 states consist? Let us try to clear up this question. 



3. The Communities of the Higher Animals Com- 

 pared with those of Ants. 



Both Ziegler and Darwin 1 point to the fact, that 

 the higher mammals, especially apes, "sometimes form 

 societies for the purpose of receiving notice of danger, 

 for providing mutual protection and defense, for ob- 

 taining nourishment, sometimes even for united at- 

 tacks on their prey." 2 Societies of ants have the 

 very same end in view. Although their main pur- 

 pose is to rear their young in common, yet those 

 other secondary purposes are not only not excluded, 

 but their pursuit and attainment by ants reach a de- 

 gree of perfection unequaled by the above mentioned 

 higher animals. However, neither Darwin, nor Es- 

 pinas, nor Ziegler, nor, in fact, any modern student 

 of animal psychology has ever succeeded in proving 

 that apes are conscious of their purpose, and therefore 

 act with intelligence, and that ants are without con- 

 sciousness of purpose, and therefore acting merely 

 from instinct. 



Let us consider more closely the different points 

 of comparison. The higher animals living in hordes 

 aid their comrades by certain calls, giving warning 

 of danger. Some of them, e. g., the chamois, post 

 regular "sentinels" for this purpose. However, ants 

 do the same and in a manner much more indicative 



*) "Descent of Man," I. Chap. 4. 

 3 ) Ziegler 1. c., p. 189. 



