( 20 ) 



on the back. The family of carps is divided into three 

 sub-families; the little loaches, Cobitidince, which extend 

 throughout the length and breadth of the Indian and Burmese 

 fresh-waters, from a sea level to many thousand feet above 

 it, even breeding in places where the rivers are almost entire- 

 ly replenished by melting snows. In all is the air-vessel 

 more or less enclosed in bone. In those species found 

 high up amongst the hills and in snow-fed rivers when 

 ascending up to near their sources, as in Nemacheilus, it 

 appears to be invariably so : whilst in the larger Botia, which 

 mostly is taken in the plains or bases of hills, the posterior 

 portion of the air-vessel is wholly or partially free in the 

 abdominal cavity, only its anterior portion having an osseous 

 capsule. It is remarkable that the single genus of this sub- 

 family which is found high up in the hill ranges, Nemacheilus, 

 is destitute of any offensive or perhaps defensive spine under 

 the eye, but which is possessed by every genus in the plains, 

 as Apua, Acanthophthalmus. Acanthopsis, Cobitis, Lepido- 

 cephalichthys, Botia and Jerdonia. Misgurnus has been 

 omitted as not found in India, but it has been taken in the 

 hill ranges beyond Upper Burma ; it has no orbital spine. 

 Loaches form excellent food for the larger fishes, and are 

 also esteemed for this purpose by the natives of India. 



XXXV. The second sub-family of the carps are the 

 second sub-famiiy of carps, sand-grubbers, Homalopterwa : they 



Sand-grubbers, having no air- have no air-vessel, are insignificant 



in numbers and size, and reside under 



stones in streams along the bases of hills or at moderate 

 elevations. 



XXXVI. The third, largest and most important sub- 

 Third sub-family of carps, air- family are the true carps, Cyprinince, 



vessel not enclosed in bone. w hich are generally distributed and 



The hill carps sub- divided into . J , ,, , 



non-migratory and migratory ai'6 most important as IOOd : all haVC 



forms - the air-vessel free in the abdominal 



cavity. Very few are merely vegetable feeders ; the barbels, 

 Barbus, appear to be all carnivorous or omnivorous, and take 

 the place in Indian rivers supplied by trout in the more 

 northern climes. These carps are divisible into those of 

 the hills and those of the plains. The Mil carps, again, must 

 be sub-divided into those which " permanently" reside there, 

 and those which are occasional or periodical visitants 

 that ascend for the purpose of breeding, or to obtain a 

 change in their food. Strictly predaceous fishes do not 

 appear to be found in hilly districts. The non-migratory hill 

 carps furnish some of the most valuable articles of food 



