August 27, 1891] 



NATURE 



407 



In drawing this address to a close, I would point to the great 

 importance of extending the use of the less known metals. 

 Attention is at present concentrated on the production of alu- 

 minium, and reference has already been made to the Cowles 

 process, in which, as in that of Heroult, the reduction of alumina 

 is effected by carbon, at the very high temperature of the electric 

 arc ; while, on the other hand, in the Kleiner and similar pro- 

 cesses, the electric current acts less as a source of heat than by 

 decomposing a fluid bath, the aluminium being isolated by elec- 

 trolytic action ; and doubtless in the immediate future, there will 

 be a rapid increase in the number of metallurgical processes that 

 depend on reactions which are set up by submitting chemical 

 systems to electric stress. Incidental reference should be made 

 to the growing importance of sodium, not only in cheapening 

 the production of aluminium, but as a powerful weapon of re- 

 search. In 1849, when Percy was President of this Section, 

 magnesium was a curiosity ; now its production constitutes a 

 considerable industry. We may confidently expect to see barium 

 and calcium produced on a large scale as soon as their utility has 

 been demonstrated by research. Minerals containing molybdenum 

 are not rare ; and the metal could probably be produced as 

 cheaply as tin if a use were to be found for it. The quantities 

 of vanadium and thallium which are available are also far from 

 inconsiderable ; but we as yet know little of the action of any of 

 these metals when alloyed with others which are in daily use. 

 The field for investigation is vast indeed, for it must be remem- 

 bered that valuable qualities may be conferred on a mass of metal 

 by a very small quantity of another element. The useful qualities 

 imparted to platinum by iridium are well known. A small 

 quantity of tellurium obliterates the crystalline structure of bis- 

 muth ; but we have lost an ancient art, which enabled brittle 

 antimony to be cast into useful vessels. Two-tenths percent, of 

 zirconium increases the strength of gold enormously, while the 

 same amount of bismuth reduces the tenacity to a very low 

 point. Chromium, cobalt, tungsten, titanium, cadmium, zir- 

 conium, and lithium are already well known in the arts, and the 

 valuable properties which metallic chromium and tungsten con- 

 fer upon steel are beginning to be generally recognized, as 'the 

 last Exhibition at Paris abundantly showed ; but as isolated 

 metals we know but little of them. Is the development of the 

 rarer metals to be left to other countries ? Means for the prose- 

 cution of research are forthcoming, and a rich reward awaits the 

 labours of chemists who could bring themselves to divert their 

 attention, for even a brief period, from the investigation of 

 organic compounds, in order to raise alloys from the obscurity 

 in which they are at present left. 



It must not be forgotten that metallurgical enterprise rests on 

 (i) scientific knowledge, (2) capital, and (3) labour; and that, 

 if the results of industrial operations are to prove remunerative, 

 much must depend on the relation of these three elements, 

 though it is difficult to determine accurately their relative im- 

 portance. A modern ironworks may have an army of ten 

 thousand workmen, and commercial success or failure will de- 

 pend in no small measure on the method adopted in organizing 

 the labour. The relations between capital and labour are of so 

 much interest at the present time that I do not hesitate to offer 

 a few words on the subject. 



Many examples might be borrowed from metallurgical enter- 

 prises in this and other countries to show that their nature is 

 often precarious, and that failure is easily induced by what 

 appear to be comparatively slight causes. Capitalists might 

 consequently tend to select Government securities for investment 

 in preference to metallurgical works, and the labouring popula- 

 tion would then severely suffer. It is only reasonable, there- 

 fore, that if capitalists are exposed to great risks, they should, 

 in the event of success, receive the greater part of the profits. 

 There is a widespread feeling that the interests of capital and 

 labour must be antagonistic, and as it is impossible to ignore 

 the fact that the conflict between them is giving rise to grave 

 apprehension, it becomes the duty of all who possess influence 

 to strive not merely for peace, but to range themselves on the 

 side of justice and humanity. The great labour question can- 

 not be solved except by assuming as a principle that private 

 ownership must be held inviolable ; but it must be admitted that 

 there was a time when capital had become arbitrary, and Sonne 

 kind of united action on the part of workmen was needed in 

 self-defence. If, however, we turn to the action of the leaders 

 of trades unions in the recent lamentable strikes, we are pre- 

 sented with a picture which many of us can only view as that of 



NO. 1139, VOL. 44] 



tyranny of the most close and oppressive kind, in which indi- 

 vidual freedom cannot even be recognized. There are hundreds 

 of owners of works who long to devote themselves to the true 

 welfare of those they employ, but who can do little against the 

 influence of the professional agitator, and are merely saddened 

 by contact with prejudice and ignorance. I believe the view to 

 be correct that some system by which the workman participates 

 in the profits of enterprise will afford the most hope of putting 

 an end to labour disputes, and we are told that profit-sharing 

 tends to destroy the workmen's sense of social exclusion from 

 the capitalistic board, and contents him by elevating him from 

 the precarious position of a hired labourer. No pains should, 

 therefore, be spared in perfecting a system of profit-sharing. 



Pensions for long service are great aids to patience and fidelity, 

 and very much may be hoped from the fact that strenuous efforts 

 are being made by men really competent to lead. The Report 

 of the Labour Commission which is now silting will be looked 

 for with keen interest. Watchful care over the health, interests, 

 and instruction of the employed is exercised by many owners of 

 works ; and in this respect the Dowlais Works, which are being 

 transplanted into your midst at Cardiff, have long presented a 

 noteworthy example. Workmen must not forget that the 

 choice of their own leaders is in their own hands, and on this 

 the future mainly depends. " We may lay it down as a per- 

 petual law that workmen's associations should be so organized 

 and governed as to furnish the best and most suitable means for 

 attaining what is aimed at — that is to say, for helping each indi- 

 vidual member to better his condition to the utmost in body, 

 mind, and property." These words will be found in the Ency- 

 clical Letter which Pope Leo XIII. has recently issued on the 

 "Condition of Labour." To me it is specially interesting that 

 the Bishop of Rome in his forcible appeal again and again cites 

 the opinion of St. Thomas Aquinas, who was a learned chemist 

 as well as a theologian. 



Those of us who realize that "the higher mysteries of being, 

 if penetrable at all by human intellect, require other weapons 

 than those of calculation and experiment," should be fully 

 sensible of our individual responsibility. Seeing that the study 

 of the relations between capital and labour involves the con- 

 sideration of the complex problems of existence, the solution of 

 which is at present hidden from us, we shall feel with Andrew 

 Lang that " where, as matter of science, we know nothing, we 

 can only utter the message of our temperament." My own 

 leads me to hope that the patriotism of the workmen will pre- 

 vent them from driving our national industries from these shores ; 

 and I would ask those to whom the direction of the metallurgical 

 works of this country is confided to remember that we have to 

 deal both with metals and with men, and have reason to be 

 grateful to all who extend the boundaries, not only of our 

 knowledge, but also of our sympathy. 



SECTION D. 



BIOLOGY. 



Opening Address by Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., 

 F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, 

 President of the Section. 



On Growth-curvatures in Plants. 

 A seedling plant, such as a young sunflower, when growing 

 in a state of nature, grows straight up towards the open sky, 

 while its main root grows straight down towards the centre of 

 the earth. When it is artificially displaced, for instance by 

 laying the flower-pot on its side, both root and stem execute 

 certain curvatures by which they reach the vertical once niore. 

 Curvatures such as these, whether executed in relation to light, 

 gravitation, or other influenc-s, may be grouped together as 

 growth-curvatures, and it is with the history of our knowledge 

 on this subject that I shall be occupied to-day. I shall prmci- 

 pally deal with geotropic curvatures, or those executed m 

 relation to gravitation, but the phenomena in question form a 

 natural group, and it will be necessary to refer to heliotropism, 

 and, indeed, to other growth-curvatures. The history of the 

 subject divides into two branches, which it will be convenient to 

 study sepaiately. 



When a displaced apogeotropic organ curves so as to become 

 once more vertical, two distinct questions arise, which may be 

 briefly expressed thus : — 



