GREEK AND ROMAN PLOUGHS. 



The Greeks and Romans had indeed rude and simple 

 implements to woi'k with, but they were well aware of 

 the most important principles of agriculture. The 

 Greek writers recommend a careful attention to the 

 nature of soils and of manures, and allude to the prac- 

 tice of ploughing in green crops, as enriching the soil 

 as much as dung. The Romans gave their land frequent 

 ploughings : they seem always to have ploughed three 

 times before they sowed ; and sometimes, on stiff soils, 

 as much as nine times. They usually allowed their land 

 to lie fallow every other year. 



The rude ploughs of Spain are supposed to be as old 

 as the time of the Romans. That used near Malaga 

 is nothing more than a cross, with the end of the per- 

 pendicular part shod with iron. It is drawn by two 

 oxen, attached to it by the clumsy contrivance of ropes 

 fastened to the horns. This plough does not penetrate 

 more than six inches into the soil. 



In many other countries, where agriculture has made 

 little progress, the ploughs are exceedingly rude and 

 simple in their construction. The plough used in Ben- 

 gal is merely a crooked piece of wood sharpened at one 

 end, and covered with a plate of iron, which forms the 

 plough-share, and finished at the other end by a handle 

 fixed to it crosswise. In the midst is a long straight 

 piece of wood or bamboo, which goes between the bul- 

 locks, and is fastened to the middle of the yoke. The 

 yoke is laid over the neck of two bullocks, and has two 

 pegs descending on the side of each bullock's neck, 

 by means of which it is tied with a cord under the 

 throat. A man or boy holds the plough with one hand, 

 and with the other guides the animals by pulling them 

 this or that way by the tail, driving them forward with 

 a stick. 



The ploughs of European Turkey are also very sim- 

 ple, though in some cases they are provided with two 

 wheels. They consist of a share, a beam, and a handle. 

 The share resembles the claw of an anchor, and has its 



