$8 DOGMATISM AND EVOLUTION 



but of two indissoluble aspects of a single entity. Again, in the 

 monadism of Leibniz, the correspondence is between the modes 

 of each substance and the universe of substances. The pre- 

 established harmony here takes the place of the parallelism of 

 thought and extension; and consequently, as in Spinoza, the 

 completely distinct idea is forthwith true. The important point 

 for us to note is that in spite of these developments of the ontology 

 of rationalism the epistemological dualism remains. In Spino- 

 zism the attributes of thought and extension are each absolutely 

 primitive and independent, and there is no possibility of any 

 essential connection. The parallel that obtains beween them 

 is only such as obtains equally between all the infinite attributes 

 of God. At bottom it amounts to no more than their being 

 predicates of a common subject. In the philosophy of Leibniz, 

 the 'windowlessness' of the monads, their imperviousness to out- 

 side influence, is a fundamental dogma. The ideas of which a 

 mind is conscious follow upon each other by a law of its own 

 nature. The student of Leibniz is, indeed, sometimes driven to 

 wonder how the philosopher ever convinced himself of the exist- 

 ence of an outside world at all. 



How admirably the representative theory accords with the 

 other characteristic doctrines of rationalism, the reader has doubt- 

 less observed. The externality of the relation between idea and 

 thing is itself a case of the general maxim ; and it further assures 

 the externality of all other relations. For as idea and object 

 are absolutely incomparable, the identical relations which obtain 

 between ideas and between objects must be wholly foreign to 

 the essence of both. Moreover the dualism of idea and ideatum 

 makes the assumption of a definite stock of underived and un- 

 questionable knowledge imperative. The rationalistic axioms 

 and definitions serve not only to connect a variety of ideas among 

 themselves and to support a chain of 'abstract' reasoning. The 

 intuitions refer directly to reality; and every deductive process 

 that starts from them maintains its reference to reality to the end. 

 For the relations between ideas, which the judgments of science 



