192 DOGMATISM AND EVOLUTION 



(within which are distinguished as individuals the child's own 

 mamma and the particular mammas of certain of its playmates) 

 becomes differentiated into the more general concept 'lady,' in- 

 cluding all adult women, and 'mamma,' including women having 

 children. Where such development has occurred, we have a 

 true case of logical inclusion, as is evidenced in the former defini- 

 tion cited: "A mamma is a lady to take care of me" though 

 the last word reveals the individual significance which also at- 

 taches to the term. 



We have next to consider the greater survival-value of the 

 general concept as compared with the concept of the simple 

 object. The very fact that the reference of the general concept 

 to conduct is a stage more indirect means that cognitive control 

 is at once more far-reaching and more delicate. The further 

 differentiation and integration which marks the development of 

 the general concept means that on the objective side the situation 

 has undergone a similar transformation. It has gained at once 

 a far greater degree of continuity with other possible situations 

 and a far greater individuality. The general concept provides a 

 far more efficient instrument for the analysis of the situation, and 

 it is in the analysis of the situation that the specific function of 

 cognition consists. The increased efficiency of control manifests 

 itself in the modification which is observable in the learning-proc- 

 ess. When a given course of conduct fails, the individual is not 

 left to mere groping in the dark, but there are ready to suggest 

 themselves more or less specific alternative modes of behavior. 

 The failure may itself be classified as falling within more or less 

 known limits. The possibility of such classification arises from 

 the fact that for the most part the conduct to be modified is at 

 the level of conceptual thought no such instinctive affair as it 

 was formerly. Desires, purposes, intentions have undergone a 

 process of evolution correlative to that which has taken place 

 in cognitive life. Failure of a given action results in no vague 

 unpleasantness; on the contrary it is a failure of definite expec- 

 tations. This is true even where the failure attaches to an habit- 



