COMPARATIVE. HISTORICAL. 619 



the organ of speech (onomatopoesis) ; for example the hissing of flowing water, 

 the roaring of the storm, the rolling of thunder, ringing, howling, whistling, etc, 

 If a further attempt is made to transform impressions depending on excitation 

 of other senses into somewhat corresponding sound-perceptions, the term indirect 

 onomatopoesis may be employed; for example the attempt to represent a sudden 

 stab or a blinding flash of lightning by a short, shrill, whistling sound (Heise's 

 principle of sound-metaphor). 



Therefore, the primitive speech of man may have been a series of reflex sound- 

 pantomimes and onomatopoetic imitations. 



Moreover, expression in language is naturally related to the process of apper- 

 ception. No idea can be expressed in language or gesture unless it be first apper- 

 ceived, that is raised from the mass of ideas that fill the conscious mind to the 

 psychic view-point. 



Many different sounds occur in the various languages. Some tongues, for 

 example that of the Hurons, have no labials; on some South Sea Islands no laryn- 

 geal consonants are spoken; f is wanting in Sanskrit, Finnish, etc. ; the short e (a), 

 o, and the soft sibilants in Sanskrit; d in Chinese and Mexican; s in many Poly- 

 nesian tongues, r in Chinese; etc. 



Movements of expression occur also among animals, especially the higher 

 ones. The vocal organ of mammals is essentially like that of man. In some 

 apes (orang-outang, mandril, pavian, macacus, mycetes) large sacs, which can be 

 inflated with air, and which open between the larynx and the hyoid bone, serve 

 as special resonance-organs. The whale has no voice. 



Birds possess two larynxes, of which the lower is situated at the bifurcation 

 of the trachea and is capable of producing the voice. Two folds of mucous mem- 

 brane (in singing birds three) project one into each bronchus; they are rendered 

 tense and are approximated by from one to five or six pairs of muscles, and they 

 serve for the production of the voice. 



Among reptiles, the tortoise can produce only a snorting noise, because it 

 possesses no vocal bands ; in the emys this may be increased to a peculiar whistling. 

 The blind snakes are wholly voiceless; the chameleon and the lizard exhibit 

 feeble voice-formation; the alligator and the crocodile are able to emit a roar, 

 but in the adults of some species of crocodile the voice is lost, owing to changes 

 in the larynx. Snakes lack special apparatus for voice-formation; in the act of 

 forcing the air from their capacious lung through the entrance of the larynx, 

 they produce a hissing sound, which at times may be surprisingly loud and harsh 

 (puffing adder, hooded snake). 



Among the amphibia, frogs possess a larynx with vocal bands and muscles. 

 By blowing gently through this without muscular action, they produce deep, 

 intermittent sounds; by blowing more forcibly and contracting the constrictors 

 of the larynx, they produce a clear, continuous sound. The males of Rana escu- 

 lenta possess at the angle of the mouth on each side a sounding-bag, which can 

 be inflated and which intensifies the sound. In the tree-toad these sacs are united 

 in the middle line to form a single laryngeal sac. Among toads, the sounds pro- 

 duced are usually weaker, and of these the bell-like note of the bombinator is 

 worthy of notice; true toads emit feeble tones. The vocal organ of the Surinam 

 toad (pipa) is peculiar: two cartilaginous rods project into the lumen of a large 

 larynx; these are set into vibration by the current of air, and sound like vibrating 

 rods or the branches of a tuning-fork. The salamander occasionally emits a 

 sound resembling "uik." Among fish, utterance of sound occurs, as a result of 

 friction of the upper/ and lower pharyngeal bones against each other, or of vibration 

 of fins induced by muscular action, or of the escape of gas from the swimming- 

 bladder, mouth, or anus. Finally, muscular sounds may be observed in fish. 



Among invertebrates, insects are able to produce sounds partly by forcing 

 the expired air through their stigmata, which are provided with reeds supplied 

 with muscles (for example bees, many diptera, etc.). In addition, the wings 

 often generate sounds by the rapid movement of their muscles (as in flies, beetles, 

 bees). The death-head (Sphinx atropos) produces sound by forcing air from its 

 sucking stomach. In others sounds are generated by rubbing the legs on the 

 wing-cases (acridium), or the wing-cases on each other (gryllus, locust), or the 

 breast (cerambyx), the leg (geotrupes), further the abdomen (necrophorus) on the 

 margin of the wings, or the lower wing on the wing-case (pelobius) . hi the cicadas 

 drum-membranes, pulled upon by muscles, are caused to vibrate. In some 

 spiders (theridium) friction-sounds are produced between the cephalothorax and 

 the abdomen, in some crabs (palinurus) also by the claws. In certain snails (helix) 



