THE CARBOHYDRATES. 291 



second portion the total sulphur is determined as follows (the differ- 

 ence between the two results indicates the amount of neutral 

 sulphur) : 



METHOD OF HOHNEL,, GLASER, v. ASBOTH (modified by 

 Modrakowski). 1-2 grammes of sodium peroxide are placed in 

 a nickel dish, and covered with 50 c.c. of urine, which is added 

 from a pipette drop by drop. The fluid is evaporated on a water- 

 bath to a syrup, and is further treated with 23 grammes of the 

 Deroxide, which is added slowly and carefully, while stirring. As 

 soon as the reaction, which at first is fairly vigorous, becomes 

 calmer, the dish is removed from the water-bath and heated with a 

 small alcohol lamp, if necessary adding from 1 to 3 grammes of 

 peroxide more. The mass now appears as a brown syrup and finally 

 becomes thick. This ends the reaction. On cooling the fusion is 

 dissolved in hot water ; the solution is filtered and feebly acidified 

 with hydrochloric acid. Barium chloride is then added and the 

 process continued as described elsewhere (page 238). 



THE CARBOHYDRATES. 



The carbohydrates which may be found in the urine comprise 

 glucose, laevulose, laiose, maltose, lactose, dextrin, and certain pen 

 toses. Of these, traces of glucose, dextrin, animal gum, and possibly 

 also pentoses, may be found at all times. Their amount, however, 

 is normally so small that their presence cannot be recognized by the 

 common tests. Larger amounts of carbohydrates are found in 

 health only during the puerperal state and in the course of lactation, 

 when lactose is commonly present. Otherwise the elimination of 

 sugar in amounts which can be demonstrated by the ordinary tests 

 must be regarded as abnormal. 



Glucose. As I have indicated, glucose appears in the urine 

 whenever its amount in the blood exceeds 3 pro mille. This, 

 however, occurs only under abnormal conditions, and in the pres- 

 ence of small amounts the kidneys are manifestly capable of 

 preventing its passage into the urine. Under certain conditions, 

 however, this power is apparently lost, and we find, as a matter 

 of fact, that following the administration of phlorhizin glucosuria 

 occurs, although the percentage of sugar is not increased in the 

 blood. Whether or not such an insufficiency on the part of the 

 kidneys may also occur spontaneously we do not know. As a gen- 

 eral rule, however, glucosuria is associated with a hyperglucha3mia. 

 This may result if unduly large amounts of sugar reach the liver, 

 so that the organ is incapable of transforming the entire quantity 

 into glycogen, and I have pointed out that the functional capacity 

 of the liver in this respect is of a much lower order than the 

 ability of the intestinal epithelium to transform polysaccharides 

 and disaccharides into glucose. The extent to which the liver 

 can normally transform glucose into glycogen seems to vary 



