394 AGRICULTURE. 



give very particular directions. "To break bullocks/' says 

 Varro, "put their necks between forked stakes, set up one for 

 each bullock, and give them meat from the hand. They will 

 become tractable in a few days. Then, in order that by degrees 

 they may become accustomed to the yoke, let an unbroken one 

 be joined with a veteran, whom he will imitate ; then let them 

 go upon even ground without a plow ; then yoke to a light plow 

 in a sandy soil. That they may be trained for carriages, they 

 should be first put to empty carts, and driven, if convenient, 

 through a village or town ; the habit of hearing frequent noises 

 and seeing a variety of objects, will soon make them fit for use." 

 Training commences with the calf state ; and "calves," says Vir- 

 gil, " which you intend for country labor, should be instructed 

 while their youthful minds are tractable and their age manage- 

 able. First, bind round their necks wide wreaths of tender 

 twigs ; then, when their free necks have been accustomed to 

 servitude, put real collars upon them so that they may print 

 their steps only upon the top of the dust ; afterward, let the 

 beechen axle groan under the heavy load, and the pole draw 

 the wheels joined to the weighty carriage." 



Laboring oxen were fed with the mast, or nuts of the beech, 

 or sweet chestnut ; grape stones and husks, after being pressed ; 

 hay, wheat, and barley straw ; bean vetch and lupine chaff ; all 

 parts of corn and pulse, grass, green forage, and leaves. The 

 leaves used were those of the holm-oak, ivy, elm (considered the 

 best), the vine, the poplar, etc. The poplar leaves were mixed 

 with the elm leaves, to make them hold out, and when there 

 were no elm leaves, the oak and fig leaves were used. The food 

 preferred before all others, by Columella, is good pasturage in 

 summer, and hay and corn in winter ; but he says that the food 

 and manner of feeding differ in different countries. 



Oxen were worked in pairs abreast, both with the cart and 

 plow, and stood in the stables also in pairs, in stalls made for this 

 purpose. They were carefully matched, in order that the stronger 

 might not wear out the weaker. They were yoked either by 

 the horns or neck, but the latter mode was greatly preferred. 

 "Yoking by the horns," Columella observes, "is condemned by 

 almost all who have written on husbandry, because cattle can 

 exert more strength from the neck and breast than the horns, 



