SUBSTRATUM. 



SUG/.R. 



the distance of about 14 inches one from an- 

 other. In about ihree months from the time of 

 ploughing these lines are totally obliterated, 

 and the quantity of aftermath, and the thick- 

 ness of the bottom, have been the subject of ! 

 admiration of all my neighbours. Another ! 

 advantage from this subturf-ploughing is, that, 

 before that took place, water was lying stag- 

 nant in many parts (after heavy rains), espe- 

 cially in the lower grounds, to a great depth: 

 now no water is to be seen lying on any part, 

 the whole being absorbed by the earth." (Journ. 

 of Kng. Jlr. Soc. vol. i. p. 253.) 



And for heavier soils, the evidence in favour 

 of subsoil-ploughing is equally valuable. In 

 the year 1838, an experiment was made by 

 Sir James Graham, which is important in se- 

 veral respects. It was on a field of about 8 

 acres, of the poorest and wettest land. "The 

 surface-soil is about 5 inches deep of black 

 earth, of a peaty quality. The subsoil is a 

 weeping retentive clay, with sand and rusty 

 gravel intermixed. This clay extends to the 

 bottom of the drains, which are of tile, laid 30 

 inches deep in every furrow. This field was 

 rented by the out-going tenant at 4s. 6</. per 

 acre. It was in pasture of the coarsest de- 

 scription, overrun with rushes and other aqua- 

 tic plants. After draining, on one-half of this 

 field I used Mr. Smith's subsoil-plough. On 

 the other half I trench-ploughed to the depth 

 of 10 inches, by two ploughs following in suc- 

 e.'N-sj.in. In the first part, not mixing with the 

 surface any of the subsoil; in the last part, 

 QomaiWfimg the surface and the subsoil in 

 nearly equal proportions. The whole field 

 was heavily, but equally manured, and planted 

 with potatoes ; and though the potato crop, 

 even on irood land in this neighbourhood 

 (Cumberland), was below an average, yet the 

 crop in this field exceeded an average, and 

 yi-'I'U'd about 12 tons per acre. The field is 

 equally drained in every part. The crop was 

 so equal throughout the field, that I am un- 

 able to pronounce positively which part was 

 the l>i'st, but I am inclined to give the prefer- 

 ence to that portion where Mr. Smith's subsoil- 

 plonirh was used." 



slBSTRATUM. A stratum lying under 

 another stratum. The term subsoil is generally 

 applied to the matters which intervene between 

 the surface soils and the rocks on which they 

 rest ; thus, clay is the common substratum, or 

 subsoil, of gravel. 



SUCCORY. See CHICCORT. 



SUCCULENT. A botanical term, signify- 

 ing fleshy, or filled with juice. 



SUCKER. A young twig or shoot from the 

 root of a plant. See PROPAGATION. 



SUDORIFIC. Having the power of pro- 

 ducing perspiration. 



SUET. The fat situated about the loins and 

 kidneys, which is harder and less fusible than 

 that from other parts of the same animal. 

 That of the ox and sheep is chiefly used; and, 

 when melted out of its containing membranes, 

 it forms tallow, and is largely used in the ma- 

 nufacture of candles and the ordinary soaps. 

 Beef and mult3n suet, when fused, concrete at 

 a temperature of about 100. Like other kinds 



of fat, it is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, 

 and oxygen. See ADEPS, FAT, LARD, &c. 



SUFFRUTICOSE (Lat. suffrutex, an under- 

 shrub). Any plant which is not exactly either 

 a shrub or an herbaceous plant, that is, wLich 

 has not hard woody twigs and complete buds, 

 like the one, nor perishable, succulent leaves 

 and shoots, like the other, is so termed. La- 

 vender is an instance of a suffruticose plant. 



SUGAR (Fr. sucre ; Germ, zucker). The 

 great commercial demand for sugar is almost 

 exclusively supplied from the sugar-cane 

 (.flri'ndo saccharifcm), which contains it in great- 

 er quantity and purity than any other plant, 

 and consequently affords the greatest facilities 

 for its extraction. Cane sugar is combined, in 

 the juice of the plant, with a number of other 

 substances. The following analysis of M. 

 Avequin shows the nature and proportions of 

 these: 0-46 albumen, 0-81 gum, 101-2 crys- 

 tallizable sugar, 41-6 uncrystallizable sugar, 

 0-85 chlorophyle and oil, 0-75 stearin, 1-28 resin, 

 3-58 salts, and 700-8 water, in 1000 parts. 

 The juice, after expression, is freed from some 

 acid which it contains, by means of lime, and 

 then concentrated by boiling; after which, as 

 soon as brown grains form, the syrup is puri- 

 fied, and allowed to crystallize. The crystals 

 are next separated from the molasses, or un- 

 crystallizable sugar, by dripping. This forms 

 muscovado or brown sugar, which is afterwards 

 purified. The purest raw sugar comes from 

 IVuif rara. Pure sugar is a compound of 

 44-44 of carbon, 6-18 of hydrogen, and 49-78 

 of oxygen, in 100 parts. Sugar is nutritive, 

 demulcent, and powerfully antiseptic. Grape 

 sugar undergoes fermentation more readily 

 than cane sugar. A large quantity of sugar, 

 identical to cane sugar, is contained in the sap 

 of the American maple (deer saccharinum), that 

 of the cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifcra), and in the 

 juice of the beet-root (Beta vulgaris),from each 

 of which it may be economically obtained: it 

 has also been extracted from grapes or raisins, 

 and, as is well known, is contained abundantly 

 in many ripe fruits and esculent vegetables. It 

 is, however, in these seldom so pure or in such 

 quantity as to admit of ready separation, or 

 crystallization. The total average quantity 

 entered annually for home consumption in 

 England, is, in round numbers, nearly 4,000,000 

 cwts. See MAIZE, MAPLE, MOLASSES, &c. 



The sugar-cane, under the name of the su- 

 gar-reed, is mentioned in the oldest records of 

 antiquity as a product of the Eastern world. It 

 would also appear, that the sugar-cane was 

 found growing luxuriantly in Hispaniola, when 

 Columbus first discovered America, according 

 to the account given by Peter Martyr, written 

 during the second voyage of Columbus. There 

 are many varieties or species of the reedy 

 grass producing sugar, both cultivated and 

 growing wild on the banks of rivers and mea- 

 dows, in both the Indies, China, Africa, the 

 South Sea Islands, and America. The common, 

 sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum}, Plate iv. d, 

 is a perennial-rooted plant, very susceptible to 

 frost, and therefore restricted in its cultivation 

 to a belt or zone extending from 35 to 40 on 

 each side of the e^'iator. In the Southern 



1019 



