230 BRITISH FOREST TREES 



the warmest season of the year. Even on the better classes 

 of alder soils there often comes a time when one cannot 

 fail to note that the soil seems somewhat lacking in moisture 

 for the normal and remunerative growth of the alder, though 

 it may be still rather too moist for the normal requirements 

 of other species of forest trees. In many cases the way can 

 certainly be at once prepared for these others by drainage, 

 and often easily and cheaply; but care must be taken not to go 

 too far in this direction, as a dried-out marshy soil does not 

 by any means promise good results sylviculturally. When 

 diminution of the returns from alder coppices is properly 

 ascribable to decrease of soil-moisture, the question naturally 

 presents itself, whether the area in question should be retained 

 under sylviculture and transformed into woodlands of other 

 species, or should be utilised agriculturally and transformed 

 into grazing-grounds and pasture-land, a certain amount of 

 drainage being necessary in both cases. When still retained 

 under wood, the transformation may take place into willow 

 coppice, or into mixed forests in which ash, birch, pine, 

 spruce, and oak are the chief species the oak and the ash 

 on the better patches of soil, the Scots pine on the higher- 

 lying, drier parts. Local configuration of soil is an important 

 factor in such cases, and it often happens that the whole 

 woodland is made up of small groups of alders and birches on 

 the moister parts, oaks, ashes and elms on the merely damp 

 portions, and pine and spruce, both pure and mixed, on the 

 drier patches ; but it must be borne in mind that on such 

 localities the spruce is apt to suffer from late frosts, unless 

 it has the shelter of some good nurse like birch. 



In mixed forests the alder is often found associated 

 along with the birch and the aspen in marshy hollows in 

 upland and hilly districts, unless the soil has become soured 

 by long-continued growth of heather, or from other causes. 

 Such woods, composed for by far the most part of light-loving 



