266 BRITISH FOREST TREES 



ever, the seed is above the middle of the obovate fruit, and 

 the notch between the wings reaches down to near the top 

 of the seed, whilst in the Scots elm the seed is nearer the 

 centre of the almost oval fruit, and the notch in the wings 

 does not reach down to it. 



The reproductive power of elms is considerable, exhibiting 

 itself not only in shoots from the stool and along the whole 

 stem, especially from the cicatrices or callus growth of 

 former wounds, but also in suckers from shallow super- 

 ficial roots, although in this respect aspen shows still more 

 energy. In isolated trees and in avenues this capacity is 

 also exhibited by the tendency of adventitious buds to 

 develop into shoots along the bole. On good fresh soil 

 their reproductive power is especially good. They stand 

 pollarding well, and both as pollard and coppice yield good 

 fodder for cattle, as well as fair returns in timber, whilst 

 they long retain their power of shooting from the stool. 



Liability to Suffer from External Dangers. As regards 

 frost, elms belong to the hardier species of deciduous trees. 

 Late frosts do them little damage, in which respect they 

 follow closely on the hornbeam, but on the other hand 

 drought, or strong growth of rank grass, is very prejudicial to 

 their development. During severe winters, however, super- 

 ficial roots, both of young and of old trees, suffer when the 

 soil has no proper covering to protect it. When in healthy 

 growth, they are neither apt to be thrown nor broken by the 

 wind ; but as they continue to flourish outwardly long after 

 they are over-mature and rotten in the heart of the stem, 

 their power of resisting storms may sometimes appear less 

 than it really is. Deer and cattle both love to browse on 

 elm foliage, but with its strong recuperative power the 

 damage done is not of much consequence. Rubbing by 

 stags and roe-buck often occasions severe wounds on young 

 stems, and red-deer are apt to strip the bark of poles before 



