KOUGH CONVEKSION. 245 



Pure alder-woods yield chiefly timber, but are, unfortunately, 

 decreasing in area, though greatly esteemed for the manufacture 

 of cigar-boxes. [In Britain they yield gunpowder charcoal and 

 clog-wood. — Tr.] 



It is rare to obtain more timber than firewood from broad-leaved 

 forests ; the contrary prevails in coniferous woods, and wherever 

 conifers are grown, mixed with broad-leaved trees, they form 

 splendid trees, and the yield of such forests in valuable timber is 

 very high. Woods of spruce, silver-fir, and Scotch pine [also 

 larch in Britain. — Tr.] or mixed forms of these with beech as a 

 subsidiary species are the chief kinds of coniferous forests in 

 Eui-ope. 



In the case of spruce and silver-fir woods, the timber yield 

 may, under favourable circumstances, go up to 75 to 80 per cent., 

 and exceptionally be even higher ; in good Scotch pine forests, 

 up to 55 to 70 per cent., whilst in the north of Europe their 

 yield in timber may equal that of spruce and silver-fir. 



Coppice-with-standards, on good soil and well stocked, yields 

 fine timber, and is the only system capable of yielding oakwood 

 of beet quality for shipbuilding. 



Coppice yields chiefly firewood, and also small wood required in 

 agriculture, such as hop-poles, vine-props, hurdle-wood, laundry- 

 props, orchard and garden tree-props, crate-wood, bean and pea- 

 sticks, fascines and osiers. Also much pit-wood for mines. 



ii. Slutpe of Trees. 



As a rule, large dimensions in length and diameter, and 

 straight and cylindrical stems, are required for the best timber. 

 A large diameter is generally more important than great length, 

 and it is trees of large diameter which are most saleable at 

 present. 



As this implies long rotations for even-aged woods, the yield in 

 timber of such woods naturally increases with their rotation, up 

 to a certain point. 



In uneven-aged woods, where there is an inferior stage of trees 

 below the more valuable ones, the latter may attain their largest 

 dimensions in diameter, and cylindrical shape. Although, as 

 stated, the yield of timber from a wood increases with its age, it 



