ROUGH CONVERSION. 249 



Manufacturers' timber is used in all ordinary wood-working 

 industries, such as cabinet-making, carriage- or cart-building, 

 turnery, wood-carving, coopers' work, &c. 



Agricultural timber is used for gates and fences, hop-poles, 

 hurdles, stakes, pea and bean sticks, &c. 



From a careful consideration of the distinction between the 

 different kinds of timber available, a forest manager will readily 

 perceive how his trees should be converted in order to meet these 

 various requirements. 



Wood from stems is usually classed as logs or butts. The 

 distinction between stems and poles and between logs and butts 

 varies in different forests, but the following classes usually occur 

 in the timber-trade. 



i. Logs. 



Logs are the boles of full-grown trees, or the greater part of 

 them, after they have been topped and freed from branches. 

 Logs should measure at least 23 feet (7 meters) in length, and 

 their mid-diameter should be at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) 

 without bark, including the bark 7 inches (18 centimeters). 



In most cases the longer and straighter the logs and the 

 greater their diameter at the smaller end, the greater is their 

 value. Logs are used chiefly in the different building-indus- 

 tries, but also to a small extent for implements, sails of wind- 

 mills, stamping-hammers, &c. ; as cloven- wood, for which only 

 straight-fibred timber is admissible, they are rarely required 

 in full length ; as sawn material they are used chiefly in 

 shipbuilding, for planking, &c. 



ii. Butts. 



Butts are round pieces of stems or of exceptionally large 

 boughs, usually cut from the shorter and thicker part of either. 

 A butt should be less than 23 feet (7 meters) in length, but at 

 least 7 inches (18 centimeters) in mid-diameter measured without 

 the bark. Whilst therefore in length a butt is surpassed by 

 logs, its chief value lies in its larger diameter. 



Butts are used for piles, mining purposes, railway-sleepers ; 

 shorter pieces (partly curved) in shipbuilding ; also in the 



