76 



DISCOVERY 



the opposite direction would fly at an altitude of not 

 less than i,ioo metres, with the same liberty . in 

 manoeuvring. For landing each aerodrome would be 

 supplied with cables arranged like the radii of a circle 

 formed by a cable surrounding the aerodrome ; this 

 would enable the aeroplanes to ahght facing the wind 

 always. 



Ancient Warfare in 

 India 



By Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah, F.R.G.S. 



The art of war was quite as closely studied in ancient 

 India as it is in the highest military circles to-day. 

 The moral codes of the sacred books called the Cdstras ' 

 led to the varying principles of warfare. In one of 

 these we are told that war is a necessary evil, the sole 

 alternative to be adopted upon the breakdown of 

 diplomacy. The life of the w-arrior was regarded in 

 old India as one which was highly pleasing to the 

 gods. " A hero," says the author of Agnipuran, 

 " enjoys the pleasure of life by victory, or conquers 

 heaven by death. A soldier cannot better requite 

 the debts of his sovereign than by sacrificing his life in 

 battle for his sake. A soldier cannot wish for a happier 

 end than death in battle. Death in battle is the 

 happiest of aU austerities and of all sin-expiating 

 penances prescribed for a soldier. The soldier who 

 deserts his comrades or who flies from the battle-field 

 incurs the sin of kilHng a Brahman, and the gods for- 

 sake such a vile coward. The soldier who prefers 

 death to defeat and thinks it more honourable to die 



1 The Cdstras, sacred books of the Hindus, were prob- 

 ably written during the second to third centuries B.C. ; and 

 the information in this article is mainly collected from two sets 

 of these writings, the Dharmafdsiras and the A rlhafdstras. The 

 former are very early metrical law-books, written in classical 

 Sanskrit, and probably based on lost Cdstra collections of the 

 Vedic School. They include the writings of Manu, Smilris, 

 and Rajdharma, all of which advocate high ethical standards of 

 life and conduct. The latter set, which were also written in 

 Sanskrit, embrace amongst others the writings of Bhayta, 

 Sukraniti, the work of Sukracharya, a great Hindu sage and 

 philosopher of the second century B.C., and the Kamandikiya, 

 the work of the celebrated Kamandiki, a religious wTiter of the 

 same age as Sukracharya; and lastly Agnipuran, one of the 

 most ancient religious treatises of the Hindus, dating from 

 about the fifth or sixth century B.C. These works advocate 

 more practical, and far less idealistic methods of life and 

 conduct. 



in the front acquires a merit of a thousand horse 

 sacrifices." 



The early hymns of the Rig-Veda,^ one of the four 

 holy books of the Hindus, those strange relics of the 

 infancy of the Aryan races, contain prayers to Indra, 

 the god of firmament and of rain, for success over the 

 enemy, " the dense, devilish heathen hordes of the 

 aborigines of India." The rewards of a good woman 

 by the gods was a warrior son, a sword-hero who would 

 rejoice her heart. It was not until the differentiation 

 into castes of the Indian races, which occurred soon 

 after the Aryan settlement, that the profession of arms 

 became the preserve of a special section of society, a 

 developed chivalry, the Kshatriya} The old books, 

 notably the Sukraniti and Kamandikiya, which are 

 amongst the works of great celebrity, speak of Brahman 

 generals and commanders who won glorious victories, 

 so that it was not regarded as improper for a devotee 

 of that exalted cult to be also a soldier. 



This notwithstanding, the Smitris, sacred wTitings 

 of equally good repute, discouraged recourse to arms 

 except as a last expedient. The waging of war for the 

 acquisition of territory was regarded as wTongful, and 

 a victory gained in battle was thought inferior to a 

 diplomatic triumph. On the other hand, the Artha- 

 cdstras, or the books that preach profit rather than 

 virtue, were consistent advocates of the prosecution 

 of warfare for the purpose of gain. Only let a monarch 

 be strong enough and sure enough of success, and then, 

 they advocated, he was foolish if he did not make an 

 effort to attack the possessions of his neighbours. A 

 foe must not be allowed to exist in a state of content- 

 ment, but must constantly be harassed until thoroughly 

 beaten and broken. To trust a foe who was not com- 

 pletely crushed was to trust a cobra half-beaten. But 

 he who was beneath the j'oke of another should strive 

 constantly to throw it off by every means in his 

 power. 



The necessity for large sums of monev to carry on a 

 successful campaign was touched upon in the ancient 

 WTitings. A hymn in the Rig-Veda asked the god Indra 

 to bestow sufficient wealth to maintain a large army. 

 During war a king might requisition money and public 

 property from his subjects, and it was the duty of a 

 loyal subject not to object to such a proceeding. 



One of the chief duties of a king was to spend con- 



- The Rig-Veda, a work in Sanskrit language, is a folk-song 

 and a remarkable literary remnant of the early Arj-an settle- 

 ments in the Punjab. Man}' Hindus believe that it dates from 

 the 'fourth century B.C. at the latest. European scholars have 

 computed from astronomical dates that part of its composition 

 was going on about 1400 B.C. The Rig-Vcda is not a Castra. 



' There are four chief castes amongst the Hindus : the 

 Brahman, the priestly class ; the Kshatri\'as, the military 

 class ; the Vaish, tradesmen and petty individuals of society ; 

 the Shudras, the menial class. 



