niSCOVERY 



into muskets and artillery, the latter carried on the 

 backs of draught animals. It is strange to find cannon 

 and gunpowder alluded to in these venerable books, 

 and this upholds the theory that such weapons of pre- 

 cision were originally invented in the East. Gun- 

 powder, so they instructed, was to be prepared from 

 five parts of nitre and one part each of sulphur and 

 charcoal. Cannon was principally used for bombard- 

 ment of fortified positions, and for demoralising rather 

 than killing the enemy. Bows and arrows were 

 •evidently not regarded with that respect which they 

 gained in ancient England, and which made the English 

 archer's name so terrible in France and Scotland. On 

 the other hand, the sword was greatly depended upon as 

 a weapon useful for close combat and capable of being 

 wielded more skilfully than the battle-axe, and swords- 

 men, it was advised, should be let loose on the enemy 

 towards the conclusion of the battle, to decide the 

 issues of the day. Metal armour was recommended 

 for the protection of troops, and leather armour for the 

 protection of horses and elephants. 



The Arlhacastras urged that, once war had been 

 decided on, measures should be taken to arouse 

 rebellion in the enemy's territory, and that his officers 

 should be bribed and " vain promises " made to them. 

 His supplies should be exhausted by every means, 

 and he should be worn down by chicanery and treachery. 

 The army should not rely on supplies on the route to 

 the enemy's country, but should carry a sufficiently 

 large amount of provisions on specially selected pack 

 animals. Nor should skilful physicians and an 

 adequate supply of drugs and medicines be forgotten. 

 The Dharmacdsiras instructed that fitting respect and 

 sacrifice should be paid to the guardian deities of the 

 region through which the invading army passed, nor 

 should the population of the country be in any way 

 molested. Villages on the high-roads might, however, 

 be destroyed by defending forces, lest they afforded 

 shelter and supplies to the enemy, and all stores of 

 grain gathered to a safe place. Defending forces were 

 also admonished to destroy bridges, keep a vigilant 

 guard over mountain passes, and poison the wells in 

 outlying districts. 



An army on the march was disposed as follows : 

 The king, with the treasury and women, was placed in 

 the middle of the forces ; the flanks of the army were 

 guarded by cavalry and chariots, with elephants and 

 scouts on the extreme outside. In actual battle the 

 forces were arranged in such a manner that they might 

 readily assist one another. Thus a horseman was 

 placed at an interval of every third foot-soldier, and an 

 elephant or chariot at an interval of every five. Four 

 infantrymen guarded each elephant, four horsemen a 

 chariot, four swordsmen defended a horseman, and four 

 archers a shield-bearer. The van consisted of the 



flower of the army, but the importance of the rear- 

 guard was never neglected. The swordsmen occupied 

 the most advanced positions, and after them came the 

 archers, cavalry, chariots, and elephants in the order 

 named. The general took up a position beside the 

 standard or nucleus of the army, the king remaining in 

 the rear, whence he could encourage his men, and rally 

 round him any broken division. But he was not 

 expected to venture into the fighting-line, as his death 

 meant annihilation and defeat for his whole army. 

 The longer the front the better, since only by the aid 

 of an extended front could successful flanking move- 

 ments be made. 



Agnipiiran gives an interesting account of the 

 various Vyuhas, or battle-formations. An army drawn 

 up in a Vyuha was divided into five parts : two wings, 

 two sides to protect the wings, and the main body 

 including the nucleus. Of these not more than two 

 divisions might be brought into action at one and the 

 same time. The disposition of the Vyuha was based 

 upon the principle of arranging the different arms in 

 such a manner as to form the best possible defence 

 consistent with the position in which the army found 

 itself, and according as to whether danger was antici- 

 pated on the front, the wings, or on all sides. 



For strictly defensive warfare the leading of small 

 guerrilla parties against the enemy's weak points was 

 recommended. The plan of attack against an army 

 of equal forces consisted of an attempt, either to envelop 

 its flanks, or to cut its forces into two by driving a 

 wedge through its centre. Ruse and ambush were also 

 part of the tactical scheme of attack. Methods of 

 fighting were, indeed, divided into two kinds, Dhar- 

 mayuddha, or fair fighting, and KuUayuddha, or unfair 

 fighting. In the former unfair weapons, or weapons 

 such as would inflict unnecessary pain, pursuit of the 

 wounded or beaten, attack on the unprotected, neutrals, 

 or an enemy in the act of surrendering, or camp- 

 followers, were not permitted. The priest, and the 

 artist too, were to be protected in the event of a city 

 being taken by the conqueror, and had to be held in all 

 honour ; the families of the slain soldiers who belonged 

 to the enemy's forces had to be pensioned ; and the 

 customs of a defeated people recognised and maintained. 

 The methods of KuUayuddha were much less fre- 

 quently resorted to. 



These are not the sentiments of barbarians, but of an 

 advanced and enlightened society, in which war was 

 regarded as a necessary evil rather than as an essential 

 to existence. That the whole art of warfare was 

 carefully studied is plain from what has gone before. 

 Serious thought was manifestly lavished even upon the 

 smallest detail, and it is evident that in India during 

 the period 1400-800 B.C. the military art was as 

 closely attended to as it was later at Rome or Athens. 



