138 



* KNOWLEDGE ♦ 



[Aug. 31. 1883. 



THE MORALITY OF HAPPIXESS. 



By Thomas Foster. 



(Continued from page lOG.) 



THE EVOLUTION OF COXDUCT. 

 Chapter II. 



IN considering the evolution of structures and functions 

 we have not only to consider the influence of the 

 struggle for individual existence, but also the effects of the 

 contest in which each race as a whole is engaged, — and to 

 •do this we have to consider, first, those circumstances which 

 affect the propagation of the race, secondly the relation of 

 the individuals of the race to their fellows, thirdly the rela- 

 tions of the race as a whole to other races. Something 

 akin to this must be done in considering the evolution of 

 conduct. We have seen how modes of conduct which 

 favour the continued existence of the individual are de- 

 veloped at the expense of modes of conduct having an 

 ■opposite tendency. These last die out, because the indi- 

 viduals of the race who act in these ways die out. But it 

 is obvious that conduct will be equally apt to die out which 

 tends to prevent or limit the adequate renewal of the race 

 from generation to generation. It is equally obvious that 

 whatever conduct causes contests (whether for life or sul> 

 sistence) within the race or species, tends to the elimination 

 •of members of the race, and so diminishes the chances of 

 the race in the struggle for existence with other races. 

 Lastly the relations of a race to surrounding races are 

 manifestly of importance in the evolution of conduct, seeing 

 that conduct will equally tend to be diminished whether 

 it is unfavourable to the existence of the race in which 

 it is prevalent, or simply unfavourable to the separate 

 •existence of an individual member of the race. 



Now with regard to conduct affecting the propagation 

 of a race, we find that, like conduct affecting individual 

 life, it has been developed from what can hardly be called 

 conduct at all in the lowest grades of life to fully developed 

 conduct, with elaborate adaptation of means to ends, in 

 the highest. In the lowest forms of life, propagation pro- 

 ceeds by mere di^nsion and subdivision, not depending so 

 far as can be judged on any power of controlling the 

 process, which such creatures may possess. In fact, the 

 Protozoa multiply by dividing. We have to pass over 

 many grades of life before we reach such imperfect care for 

 propagation of the race as we find among those orders of 

 fish in which the male keeps watch and ward over the eggs. 

 Still higher must we pass before we find any trace of affec- 

 tion for the young, and higher yet before we see care 

 given to feed and protect and keep the young till they are 

 able to provide for themselves. 



This brings us in fact very near to the human race, which, 

 in its lowest races, is distinguished from other animals 

 chiefly by the length of time during which it feeds, pro- 

 tects, and trains its young. In the higher human races all 

 these processes are conducted with greater care and 

 elaboration ; more varied wants are considered and attended 

 to, more elaborately varied means are used for the pur- 

 pose. It is easily seen how such conduct by aiding the 

 development of the race aids the development of the con- 

 duct itself by which that result is favoured. Among those 

 members of a race in whom the proper race-propagating 

 conduct is not adequately shown, propagation proceeds less 

 effectively, — which is the same as saying that, relatively, 

 such conduct itself must be diminishing. 



This conclusion is not inconsistent, as at first sight it 

 might appear, with the fact that mere numerical increase 



of propagation, though it means increase in quantity of 

 life, is not always or even generally a proof of the 

 growth of the race in what may be called race-vitality. 

 Here as elsewhere adaptation of means to ends has to be 

 considered, and that kind of conduct by which such adap- 

 tation is secured has the best chances of development in 

 the long run. Let us, for instance, take an illustration from 

 civilised life : — An early marriage between two persons care- 

 less alike of present duties and future difficulties, seems at 

 fir>t to tend directly to the increase of carelessness and 

 thoughtlessness ; for from such a union there will probably 

 come into existence more than the average number of off- 

 spring, repeating in greater or less degree the weak cha- 

 racters of their parents : the totality of life characterised 

 by undesirable qualities and conduct will thus be increased, 

 and increased in a greater ratio than the totality of prudent, 

 steady, and thoughtful life, by a well-considered union and 

 well-judged conduct thereafter. Yet in the long run the 

 result proves usually otherwise. (We consider only average 

 results. ) The larger number of offspring of inferior quali- 

 ties, receive less care and inferior training : so that for 

 them there is greater probability either of early death or 

 of defective adult life. The parents suffer also in the 

 struggle thus brought on them, for which they are ill-fitted. 

 A diminished amount of life is likely to result, and (taking 

 the average of many cases) probably does result ; while 

 certainly there is diminished life-quality. Hence results 

 a correspondingly diminished amount and influence of 

 the inferior kind of conduct shown by thoughtlessness or 

 carelessness about life's duties. On the other hand, the well- 

 judged and not too hasty union of two caretaking persons, 

 though it maj- add a smaller number of individual lives to 

 the life of the race, adds better and more enduring life, 

 life more likely to maintain and sustain the qualities of 

 the parents, giving therefore to these qualities in the race 

 at once more stability and wider influence. In other 

 words, the qualities best suited for the propagation of the 

 race, and best suited for the race, will on the average be 

 developed, while qualities having opposite tendencies will 

 either be eliminated, or though they may remain will 

 occupy a lower place and have diminished influence on the 

 fortunes of the race — a circumstance tending of itself still 

 further to their eventual elimination. 



{To he continued.) 



Pure nickel, after melting and casting, generally holds a 

 greater or less quantity of oxygen in combination, and the 

 metal is brittle. To hinder the injurious effects of the 

 oxygen, it is necessary to incorporate in the melted nickel 

 some substance which has a strong aflinity for oxygen, and 

 also for the nickel itself. According to the " Comptes 

 Rendus," M. .J. Gamier finds that phosphorus serves both 

 of these purposes very satisfactorily, producing effects 

 analogous to those of carbon in iron. If the phosphorus 

 does not exceed three-tenths of one per cent., the nickel is 

 soft and very malleable ; above this quantity the hardness 

 increases at the expense of the malleability. Phosphorised 

 nickel, when alloyed with copper, zinc, or iron, gives re- 

 sults which are far superior to those that are obtained from 

 the same nickel when not phosphorised. By means of the 

 phosphorus Garnier has been able to alloy nickel and iron 

 in all proportions, and always to obtain soft and malleable 

 products. The contradictions of illustrious chemists are - 

 thus explained, some saying that such alloys were brittle, 

 others that they were malleable. The latter had alloyed 

 the nickel to phosphorised iron. — Eiu/ineer. 



